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UNIVERSITY  OF  MASSACHUSETTS 
LIBRARY 

SPECIAL 
COLLECTIONS 

S 

1826 


LIBRARY 


S 

499 

L35 


^ 


THE 


^I'MlllB^S  LOIEAlB^e 


OR 


DESIGNED  TO  ENCOURAGE  THE  PURSUITS,  AND 
PROMOTE  THE  SCIENCE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


BY  LEOJ^TARD  E.  UiTHROPy  ESq, 


INDtTSTRT  IS  HOST   EFFICACIOUS  WHEV  AIDED  BT  SCXE5C£;( 


•V^^/t  %^^IWW%  MW«  WW  WW 

ZOXr,  CORRECTED  . 

VWWW\  WV%  •V«^/«VW«>'VW\ 


SECOXTD  EDZTZOXr,  CORRECTED  &SNZiARaED« 


WINDSOR: 

FRINTED   BY    WYiMAN   SPOONE»<r 
1826. 


LS4 


DISTRICT  OF  VERMOJVT,  TO  WIT: 

*»«»;:««  «^^»       BE  11    REMEiMBEKED,  that  on  the  twenty- 
»w«JVvvv^vg  ninth  day  of  June,  in  the  fiftieth  year  of  the  Inde- 


posu 

"Whereof  he  claims  as  author,  in  the  werds  following,  to  wit: 
*'The  Farmer's  Library,  or  Essays  designed  to  encourage  the  pur- 
suits  and  promote  the  science  of  Agriculture.  By  Leonard  E, 
Lathrop,  Esquire.  Industry  is  most  efficacious  when  aided  by 
science."  In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  ot  tht-  United 
States,  entitled,  "An  act  for  the  encouragement  of  learnmg,  by 
securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and 
proprietors  of  such  copies,  during  the  times  t^J^^^g^"^^^'^"^''^- 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  Vermont, 
A  true  eopy  of  record,  examined  and  sealed  by^m^  ^^^^^^ 


FREFACS. 


In  most  countries,  where  the  arts  of  civil  life  have  reached 
any  considerable  degree  of  improvement,  practical  farming  has 
been  studied  as  a  science  ; — and  books  innumerable  have  been 
published  upon  the  subject  in  almost  every  language  ;  yet,  ia 
the  United  States  of  America,  the  great  business  of  making 
the  most  of  the  labors  of  the  field  has  been  imperfectly  under- 
stood. Those  periodical  publications,  which  have  often  issued 
from  the  press,  containing  useful  information  on  agricultural 
subjects,  have  not  been  rendered  permanently  useful,  by  select- 
ing and  comprising  them  in  a  volume,  except  in  a  few  instan- 
ces. 

One  object  of  the  following  essays  is  to  explain  some  of  the 
fundamental  principles,  which  relate  to  agricultural  science. 
Another,  and  perhaps  not  the  least  important  one,  is  to  awakea 
a  spirit  of  ^nquiry,  and  invite  the  attention  of  our  citizens  t* 
those  pursuits,  which  are  indispensable  in  the  attainment  of  ag- 
ricultural improvements. 

In  every  part  of  the  civilized  world  it  has  happened  that  the 
disposition  to  consider  the  business  of  agriculture  as  a  mere 
menial  employment,  suited  only  to  the  lowest  class  in  society, 
or  to  slaves,  has  been  in  proport.on  to  the  progress  of  science, 
and  the  arts  of  civil  refinement.  The  indulgence  of  this  dispo- 
sition is  too  conspicuous  in  the  character  of  our  citizens.  But 
it  is  hoped  and  believed  by  many,  that  a  different  tendency 


I^OM^^ 


PREFACE. 


might  be  given  to  it,  by  a  system  of  national  education,  disci- 
pline and  laws.  This  however,  can  never  be  expected,  so  long 
as  the  knowledge  and  the  practice  of  agriculture  are,  by  force 
of  public  opinion,  considered  degrading  and  unworthy  the  efforts 
of  intellectual  capacity. 

Although  agriculture,  as  an  art,  has  engaged  the  attention 
of  mankind  from  the  earliest  ages,  yet  at  this  advanced  period 
the  farmer  may  be  considered  as  remaining  without  fixed  prin- 
ciples for  regulating  his  practice  in  many   important  branches 
of  his  business.    Writers  on  this  subject  have  too  often  amus- 
ed their  readers,  by  publishing  opinions  founded  solely  in  spec- 
ulation ;  without  reflecting  that  every  kind  of  theory  which  has 
not  extensive  practice  and  observation  for  its  basis,  is  prepos- 
terous and  absurd.    It  is  equally  so,  too,  for  the  practical  farmer 
to  pretend  that  from  one  successful  result  of  a  simple  operation, 
he  can  furnish  a  theory  which  should  be  considered  invariable 
and  uniform  in  its  application.    The  various  opinions,  founded 
solely  on  practical  knowledge,  are  often  the  result  of  correct 
and  judicious  observations ;  but  when  the  same  operations  ter- 
minate in  a  different  result,  then  it  is  that  the  philosophy  of 
nature  becomes  necessary  to  explain  the  reason  and  the  neces- 
sity of  changing  those  opinions,  and  of  accommodating  practi- 
cal means  to  a  change  of  circumstances. 

The  business  of  agriculture  depends  on  a  greater  variety  of 
knowledge  and  experience,  and  requires  much  more  judgment 
and  discretion,  than  any  art  or  trade  which  pertains  to  manual 
labor.  The  great  variety  of  the  properties  in  different  soils, 
the  perpetual  changes  of  the  weather,  and  the  seasons,  as  well 
as  many  accidents,  must  continually  vary  its  operations  to  ren- 
^tr  them  successful^. 


PREFACIS.  **^ 

It  is  the  duty  of  patriotism  and  philanthropy  to  investigate 
those  means  which  may,  under  all  circumstances  prove  most 
efficacious  to  the  labors  of  the  husbandman. 

It  is  an  error  to  indulge  an  opinion  that  the  knowledge  of 
these  means  is  to  be  acquired  only  by  practice  ;  and  that  the 
most  perfect  acquisition  of  it,  may  as  well  be  reserved  to  that 
period  of  our  history,  when  it  shall  be  rendered  necessary  by  a 
crowded  poDulation. 

Under  Ihe  influence  of  this  error,  and  of  that  indisposition  to 
laborious  pursuits,  so  predominant  in  the  human  character,  we 
suffer  a  great  portion  of  our  republic,  which  is  said  to  be  ini- 
proved,to  remain  but  a  barren  waste  ;  and  under  this  influence, 
too,  we  are  forming  habits  which  are  to  direct  the  destinies  of 
generations  yet  unborn. 

Itis  one  great  object  of  the  following  essays,  to  stimulate 
to  those  efibrts  by  which  the  quantity  of  productive  and  fertile 
grounds  may  be  increased.  But  this  cannot  be  effected  with- 
out improving  the  general  system  of  agriculture ;  without  in- 
creasing the  physical  energies  of  our  citizens,  by  engaging  a 
greater  proportion  of  our  population  in  the  business  of  husban- 
dry. 

It  is  not  believed  that  an  improved  state  of  agriculture  would 
produce  the  means  of  indolence,  or  even  of  leisure ;  but  that 
it  would  require  more  labor,  while  it  would  render  industry 
more  efficacious.  The  particular  mode  of  cultivating  the  vari- 
ous fruits  of  the  earth,  adopted  by  the  American  farmer,  has 
generally  been  the  result  of  his  observation  and  experience. 
The  remarks  therefore,  which  are  made  in  the  following  essays 
on  that  subject,  are  intended  only  as  references  to  those  prac- 
Uces  w  which  there  has  been  found  the  gieateat  union  of  opia- 


^"^  PREFACE. 

ion ;  and  to  explain  those  circumstances  which  often  create  di- 
versity of  opinions  among  intelligent  farmers,  so  as  to  reconcUe 
hem  if  possible  ;  for,  it  is  certain  that  this  diversity  does  exist 
among  cultivators  of  the  soil  in  the  same  vicinity,  although  the 
laws  which  govern  the  vegetable  creation  are  as  uniform  and 
unalterable  as  the  progress  of  time.      In  the  hands  of  one  per- 
son, a  plan  will  succeed  ;   in  the  hands  of  another,  it  fails  ;    a 
knowledge  ofthe  causes  of  these  different  results   constitutes 
the  basis  of  agricultural  science.     It  has  been  found  necessa- 
ry from  the  limited  extent  ofthe  work,  to  confine  the  subject  to 
remarks  which  relate  only  to  some  ofthe  modern  modes  of  im- 
proving land,  and  of  producing  those  crops,  and  rearing  and 
improving  those  animals,  which  have  hitherto  been  considered 
most  useful.    It  is  not  intended  to  amuse  the  speculative  theo- 
rist, but  aid  the  practical  farmer  in  his  pursuits.      Those  gen- 
tlemen, both  in  Europe  and  America,  who  have  made  efforts  in 
modern  times  to  improve  the  science  of  agriculture,  have  gen- 
erally received  no  other  compensation  for  their  services,  ex- 
cept what  individuals  have  been  pleased  to  bestow  on  them  as 
the  reward  of  their  industry.     Should  the  author  ofthe  follow- 
ing essays  not  receive  even  the  reward  which  may  be  due  to 
his  industry,  yet  he  hopes  he  may  enjoy  that  gratitude  from  the 
public,  to  which  he  thinks  he  has  a  just  claim  from  the  effor^- 
he  his  mide  to  encourage  the  pursuits,  and  promote  the  sci- 
ence of  agriculture,  although  it  should  be  found  inadequate  to 
his  design. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


COKTEKTS. 


INTROD¥CT0RY   ESSAYS. 

1.  Remarks  on  tKe  general  condition  of  Agriculture  in  the 

United  States. 

2.  The  dignity  and  importance  of  Agricultural  Pursuits  must 

direct  the  policy  and  manners  of  the  people,  to  secure 
the  perpetuity  of  our  civil  privileges. 

3.  On  the  utility  of  the  importance  of  studying  Agriculture  as  a 

science. 

I 

AGRICULTURAL  ESSAYS. 

1.  Nature  and  constituent  properties  of  the  Soil. 

2.  Nature  and  efficacy  of  the  different  Manures,  and  the  best 

mode  of  preparing  and  applying  them, 

3.  Improvement  of  Land  by  breaking  up  old  Grass  with  the 

Plough. 

4.  Improvement  of  Lands  by  Ploughing  and  Harrowing. 

5.  Rotation  of  Crops  as  a  substitute  for  Summer  Fallow. 

6.  Soiling,  its  origin  and  advantages. 

7.  Advantages  of  the  Roller. 

8.  Culture  of  Wheat. 

9.  Culture  of  Rye. 

10.  Culture  of  Indian  Com. 
Jl.  Culture  of  Oats. 

12.  Culture  of  Flax. 

13.  Culture  of  Hemp. 

14.  Culture  of  Turnips. 

15.  Culture  of  Potatoes. 

16.  Culture  of  Hops. 

17.  Culture  of  Artificial  Grasset. 

18.  Buckwheat. 

19.  Peas. 

ao.  Culture  of  Fruit  Trees. 


X  CONTENTS. 

21.  Making  and  improving  Cider. 

22.  Economy  of  managing  Wood  Land  so  as  to  make  durable- 

provision  for  fuel. 

23.  Fences. 

24.  Teams. 

25.  Horses. 

26.  Neai  Cattle. 

27.  Nature  and  management  of  the  different  kinds  of  Sheep. 

28.  Rearing  and  management  of  Swine. 

29.  Management  of  Bees. 

30.  Insects. 

31.  Practicability  of  fertilizing  the  barren  Pine  Plain  Land. 

32.  Management  of  a  Dairy. 

33.  Poultry. 

84.  Improvement  of  Bog  Meadowe. 

35.  Flooding  Land. 

36.  The  Horse  Rake. 

37.  Horrows  and  Harrowing. 
88.  The  Plough. 

39.  Ploughing. 

40.  Weeds. 

41.  Economy  of  saving  Straw. 

42.  Gypsum  or  Plaster  of  Paris. 

43.  Remarks  on  the  effects  of  different  shades  on  Vegetation^ 

44.  Advantages  of  Experiments. 

45.  Account  of  a  Cottager's  cultivation — shewing  how  great 

profits  may  be  obtained  from  a  small  piece  of  Land. 

46.  On  the  culture  of  Gardens — and  its  advantages  to  everj 

class  of  citizens. 

47.  On  the  m  nagement  of  the  Bee. 

48.  The  advantages  which  accrue  to  the  State  and  to  individ- 

uals from  the  culture  of  the  Bee. 

49.  Manufacture  of  Metheglin. 

50.  Manufacture  of  Mead. 

51.  Threshing. 

56.  General  remarks  on  the  objects  of  improving  our  Agricul- 
t«ral  Economy. 

53.  Manufacture  of  the  sap  of  the  Maple. 

54.  Fining  Maple  Sugar. 
.55.  On  Sowing/" 


INTRODUCTOa-Sr  ESSATTS- 


REMARKS    ON     THE     GENERAL     CONDITION    OF    AGRICULTURE 
IN    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

The  cultivators  of  the  soil  in  the  United  States,  may  be  di- 
vided into  four  classes:  the  great  farmer,  as  he  is  usually  cal- 
led, who  improves  from  two  hundred  to  one  thousand  acres  of 
land;  the  common  farmer,  who  cultivates  from  fifty  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  or  two  hundred  acres ;  the  third  class  is 
made  up  of  professional  men,  mechanics  and  traders,  or  specula- 
tors, who  live  in  the  country,  and  do  not  make  the  business  of 
agriculture  their  principal  object,  but  calculate  to  derive  from 
it  some  profits  which  may  contribute  to  their  living ;  and  the 
fourth,  of  those  who  cultivate  a  garden  only.  Among  all 
these,  but  few  are  willing  to  be  confined  exclusively  to  the  em- 
ployment of  cultivating  the  soil ;  but  would  pursue  some  specu- 
lative object  by  which  they  may  gain  something  without  earn- 
ing it.  The  science  of  agriculture  can  never  be  expected  to 
arrive  to  its  most  perfect  state,  unless  individuals  will  make  it 
an  exclusive  object  of  pursuit.  In  the  United  States,  where  ev- 
ery man  is  at  liberty  to  pursue  any  and  every  sort  of  business, 
by  which  he  would  improve  his  condition,  any  legislative  regu- 
lation which  would  controul  this  liberty,  would  be  considered 
an  infringement  of  our  natural  rights,  and  could  not  be  enforced. 
The  wisdom  of  individuals,  aided  by  the  influence  of  public  o- 
pinion,  may  coincide,  so  as  to  make  some  of  our  citikens  exclu- 
sively agriculturalists.  The  great  farmer,  to  increase  his 
wealth,  too  often  calculates  more  on  the  number  of  acres  which 
he  may  possess,  than  on  his  efforts  to  increase  their  productive 
powers ;  and  would  sooner  engage  in  any  speculation,  by  which 
he  might  increase  the  dimensions  of  his  farm,  than  bestow  his 
labor  in  useful  improvements  on  the  land  he  already  possesses, 
and  which  might  increase  the  quantity  of  those  productions, 
without  which  the  soil  is  of  no  value.  We  offen  see  afaroaer 
B 


14  INTRODUCTORY    ESSAYS. 

who  pretends  to  cultivate  from  three  to  five  hundred  acres  of 
vahiable  land,  manage  his  business  with  so  little  economy,  that 
he  barely  obtains  from  them,  after  defraying  the  necessary  ex- 
pences  of  cultivation,  produce  enough  to  afford  a  scanty  subsis- 
tence for  himself  and  family.  Cincinnatus,  the  noble  Roman, 
got  as  much  from  his  six  acres  :  and  some  few  farmers  in  our 
own  country  obtain  as  much  produce,  from  their  industry,  on 
fifteen  or  twenty  acres.  Those  who  would  justify  such  a  sys- 
tem of  economy,  often  direct  their  conduct  by  the  calculation 
that  no  efforts  to  increase  the  piolucts  of  the  soil,  are  useful, 
beyond  what  may  be  necessary  to  procure  a  living,  unless  the 
market  is  such  as  to  afford  great  pecuniary  encouragement  for 
surplus  produce ;  and,  to  obtain  money,  will  neglect  their  ag- 
ricultural interests  to  pursue  some  visionary  and  haz-ardous 
speculation.  It  is  a  truth,  which  reflects  dishonor  upon  the 
character  of  our  republic,  that  while  paupers  and  idlers  are  ev- 
ery where  multiplying  through  our  country,  we  may  see,  in  al- 
most every  section  of  our  territory,  large  tracts  of  land  which 
present  to  the  eye  nothing  but  a  barren  waste.  The  population 
of  the  United  States  is  but  about  the  same  as  that  of  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland.*  Ours  at  the  present  time  occupies  about  ten 
times  the  extent  of  territory,  exclusive  of  Louisiana.  Can  this 
be  consistent  with  sound  policy,  or  the  interest  and  happiness 
of  individuals  ?  Notwithstanding  a  few  of  our  citizen..;  may 
have  accumulated  greater  estates,  by  this  prodigious  and  rapid 
extension  of  our  settlements  to  the  west  and  south,  it  is  very 
certain  that  the  people  generally,  might,  by  a  practical  use  of 
agricultural  science,  at  this  time,  have  been  as  wise  and  happy 
within  the  limits  of  the  Atlantic  States,  as  they  now  are,  scat- 
tered over  a  million  of  square  miles.  It  is  said  that  we  have 
already  more  surplus  produce  than  we  can  sell,  and  it  will  be 
soon  enough  to  provide  for  the  evils  of  a  crowded  population, 
when  they  begin  to  press  upon  us.  But  it  should  be  consider- 
ed, that  by  directing  our  pursuits  too  much  to  other  than  agri- 
cultural objects,  our  national  habits  and  manners  may  become 
so  degenerated,  and  our  prejudices  so  established,  that  we  shall 
have  no  disposition  to  return  to  the  innocent  and  honest  busi- 
ness to  which  we  were  destined  by  nature.  Will  not  Ameri- 
cans be  admonished  by  the  examples  of  the  old  world,  which 
have  passed  and  are  passing  in  awful  review  before  us  ?  Through 
all  the  kingdoms  and  empires  of  the  east,  which  have  risen, 
flourished  and  fell,  and  which  are  now  hastening  to  ruin,  it  is 
not  probable,  from  the  best  calculations,  that  more  than  about 

'■Accordiag  to  the  census  of  1820. 


GENERAL     CONDITION    OF    AGRICULTURE.  18 

one  s.xth  part  of  their  PoP^^aU^^^^^^^^^^^ 

the  soil,  while  beggars  ^n^  W^^^  7ast  dominions,  mniions  of 

public  expence,  swarm  through  their  ^asi  unimproved. 

acres  of  their  valuable  lands  J^y  ^^JJ^  enLge  their  terri- 

This  disposition  in  ^he  Ame-can  pej^^  ^^^^^.^^  ^.^^^ 

tory,  rather  than  i^pvove  m  a  proper  m  f^.^^^,  ^^^ 

alrLdy  possess    appears  toje^^^^^^^^ 

ancestors,  the  English.     -^  ^^  r>ri  f    ^^ore    impor- 

to  estimate   «^.-^^;f^^f  ^^^^ 

tance  than  agriculture.     ^^.^''^^ ''^territories,  than  im.provmg 

been  "more  desirous  «^  g^^7fX^Slions  Were  expended" 

what  they  already  P^^^^^^^/l^^.^^^^^^^  colonies,  when  a 

by  them,  "in  defendmg  and  ^PfT^^'^f  ^'^^^^^^^^       every  part  of 

.Lll  part  of  that  "loney  would  have^^^^^^^^^ 

their  island  like  a  garden."  J^^^^^f^^P^^^^  of  five  miles  ex- 

Americans,  that'^HansTow^^^^^^^  a  mere  deser^^^  ,,,,|,,  tion 
lent,  covered  with  black  furze,  ^^  aimo  .        and  there 

ana  of  ^^^^^l^^^^^^^^^^^^^  and  the  ab- 

grazmg  upon  it  ^^^^/^^i^ ^^^^^n  for  a  part  of  an  American  wiiu. 
sence  of  trees,  iV"^'^,,--thin  ten  miles  of  the  Capital.*  Thie 
Yet  the  whole  of  It  is  ^^  f^'^J^'^^.e  X^^^as  so  conspicuously 
disposition  in  the  American  P^^^^P^^' ^JS^^^^^  of  our  repub- 
chlracterized  ^hem  ever  since  the  es^^^^^^^^^  ,  ^J^^, 

lie,  is  an  error,  and  ought  o  ^e  ^^^^^^^^^^  ,„!  business,  and 
should  be  mduced  ^^  "^f  ^^^|[^?[^^^^^^ 

to  study  it  as  -^  f  ^«\^f '  f^^^.^^eom  or  t^^^  blades  of  grass 
"Whoever  could  make  ^^^^^^^^^^''X  one  grew  before,  would 
grow  upon  a  spot  of  ground  ^^ere  on^  one  gre  ,^.^^  ^^^ 

is  the  principal  d"'y  °f  f''^^^|~^^  our  national  rights, 

enue,  as  will  bestpromote  tne  enjuy  renublic ;   but  the 

and  those  of  individuals  who  consti  ute  ^^«;7"^i,,„e^,  de- 
amount  of  the  public  '.even"«|^^JJ«^7jVe  JUm  of  individu- 
pends  more  on  the  pnvate  efforts  and  the  m  ^^^_ 

W  especially  on  'hose  of  the  farmer  han^on  P^  ^^^^^^  ^^ 
duct  of  any  ^'1™?°'^"'^''°"  J,  f„  Reproductive  powers  of  the 
solid  and  lasting  ''"f ''^'"^tiiable  rSrces  of  the  country, 
soil,  may  increase  the  most  .™'"°,"ybr1^ad  and  empl^ 
while  at  the  same  time  h«  *■'"  •j'^^X  thrmise  ies  of  pau- 
the  unfortunate  poor,  and  ^^^™  *em  from  the  m     ^^  ^^^^  p^^^ 

»  See  Slliiman's  Travels,  v.  1.  p.  167. 


10 

liVTRODeCTORT   ESSATS. 

practice  of  agriculture  wouU  admft   H  t  r      "="'."';?  ""<*  *« 
mencan  people  to  evincp  h,"  „,       ■'        ^  reserved  tor  the  A- 
of  inteUi|e„r  beingsl  wUj'dit!rt[Z"t''  "^'"'"'^  "'"  Creator 
of  earth  which  cannit  be  made  to  n^^]      P^P^'^'te  on  a  spot 
cient  to  afford  them  a  comfSleirf"  """"^l-mcnt  suffi- 
the  result  of  this  experiment  must  he?"""':,  .^'"^  "'"'""gh 
ty.  at  some  very  distant  period  of  our  IIT""^  ^°'-  °"'  P^^^^"- 
of  the  present  generation  to  nrPn,r»th''^\J'''' '""  "le  duty 
pursuits  to  that  object,  °n  the  form nti'  T^'  ""y  ''""'''"S  our 
manners  and  prejidices    and  nr.T  1  ^^     S"  1""°"'''  '"'"t^- 
one  sixth,  but  niLtentli  ofour  'onid?"^'""'''  ""P'^y  ""iy 
eulture,  and  make  the  s  udv  nf"^  Population,  m  practical  agri- 

*«.s,ary,  and  ^^ Z^^^^IZ^^^^':^^  -- 


The  pursuit  of  national  objects,  is  direcfprl  hv  fi.^  •  a 

ade  of  wealth,  has  been  ?oo  '  ^h  ™  "^^'^V"  ^^^^^  ^'^^  P^^' 

of  public  opin  on  in  staterw^Ph  K  ?'^^  ^y  ^^^  influence 
ous  and  free.  C  possession  of  T  ^,tf  "/^P^^ed  to  be  virtu- 
tend  to  improve  the  Sfpfn?  ^^^^^^  t°^"  "°^  necessarily 
be  improved  by  the  pursuts'?^^^         "^."^^"  '  t^^^««  ^^e  to 

aree^aged.  Ilith^r?  W^e^pt^i^n^^LTe^Ar  "'"^^  ^^7 
have  been  amused  with  the  ide^ThTihl  i  ^J^^^^'^^J^  People 
tion  of  political  happiness  denend  phH  ^  '^"'^?^"  ^"^  P^^^^*^" 
written  on  paper.  But  man?  h^!.  /r"^^''^^  ^^"^^^^"t^on 
P  per.    i5ut  many  have  ever  beheved,  that  when  the 


INFLUENCE    OF   AGRICULTURE   ON   MANNERS.         ■     17 

manners  of  the  people  arrive  to  a  certain  degree  of  degeneracy, 
the  laws  which  have  usually  governed  human  actions  and  pas- 
sions will  decide  its  fate;  and  that  such  a  state  of  degeneracy 
can  be  prevented  only  by  habits  of  industry  in  the  pursuit  ot 
objects,  best  calculated  to  meliorate   the   human  co.idition. 
Should  our  republic  exhibit  the  phenomenon  which  has  never 
yet  been  exhibited  m  the  civilized  world,  that  of  a  nation  of 
husbandmen  making  commerce  and  the  mechanical  arts  whol- 
Iv  subservient  to  the  interests  of  agriculture,  and  entorcing  up- 
on our  citizens,  as  it  were  by  a  national  discipline  and  the  in- 
fluence of  public  opinion,  habits  of  rigid  temperam^e  andmdus- 
trv,  we  mio-ht  indulge  more  sanguine  hopes  ot  its  immortal  du- 
ration.    History,  that  monumental  record  of  national  rise  and 
national  ruin,  has  taught  us  that  through  every  stage  ot  civil 
society,  the  miseries  attending  the  condition  of  man,  hav^e  been 
accumulated,  in  proportion  to  their  neglect  of  the  peaceful  and 
happy  emplovment  of  cultivating  the  earth.     It  has  been  justiy 
remarked  b/ one*  who  has  heretofore  directed  the  destinies  ot 
our  country,  "that  God  has  made  the  breasts  of  those  that  labor 
in  the  earth  his  peculiar  deposit  for  substantial  virtue ;  the  lo- 
cus in  which  he  keeps  alive  the  sacred  lire,  which  otherwise 
mio-ht  escape  from  the  face  of  the  earth :  that  corruption  of  mor- 
als'in  the  mass  of  cidtivators  is  a  phenomenon  ot  which  no  age 
or  nation  has  furnished  an  example  ;  it  is  the  mark  set  on  those, 
who,  not  looking  up  to  Heaven,  to  their  own  soil  and  maustry,  as 
does  the  husbandman,  depend  for  it  on  the  casualties  and  ca- 
price of  customers:  and  that  the  proportion  which  the  aogre- 
gate  of  the  other  classes  of  citizens  bears,  m  any  state,  to  that  ot 
its  husbandmen,  is  the  proportion  of  its  unsound  to  its  healthy 
parts."     The  voice  of  reason  and  nature  confirm  the  truth  ot 
these  remarks.     There  is  no  occupation  which,  like  agriculti ire, 
contributes  to  the  health  and  energy  of  the  human  constitution; 
and  when  attended  to  as  a  science,  it  presents  a  vast  iield  tor 
the  display  of  intellectual  improvement  and  philosophical  mves- 
tio-ation.     The  mechanical  arts,  such  as  of  masons,  carpenters 
and  smiths,  particularlv,  are  necessary,  not  only  to  aid  taot ar- 
mor in  the  progress  of  his  occupation,  but  contribute  essentially 
to  liis  convenience  and  comfort.     But  a  small  proportion  oi  this 
class  of  citii^ens,  are  however  sufficient  for  all  the  necessary 
purposes  of  their  respective  arts.     It  is  very  obvious  that  with- 
out the  plouo-h,  the  hoe  and  the  harrow,  the  productive  powers  ot 
the  soil  would  never  have  been  developed  m  any  degree  ade- 
quate to  the  great  objects  of  civilization,  and  of  impioving  tli€ 

*  Jefferson,  late  Tresident  of  the  U.  S. 
b2 


1®  INTRODUCTORY   ESSAYS. 


natural  condition  of  man.  But  in  the  invention  of  these  art* 
which  were  necessary  to  improve  the  science  of  agriculture 
mankind  were  gradually  led  to  the  discovery  of  those^whici  L: 
creased  their  riches  ;  and  when  by  the  acquisition  of  a  surplus 
of  the  produce  of  the  earth,  and  the  introduction  of  commence 
money  was  invented  as  the  representation  of  property,  and  by 
hat  means  It  was  found  practicable  to  purchase  no['only  the 
necessaries  but  the  conveniences  of  life,  the  natural  indofence 
«Lri^  nn"^"  disposition  began  to  yield  to  the  fascinating 
charms  of  luxurious  ease.  According  to  the  christian  chronof- 
op,  It  was  more  than  three  tliousan°d  years  from  the  creaUon 
troI'T^^'  ^"^"'1  '^'  "^^  °^  ^"^^r  ^"d  sold  metals  were  n- 

ed  a?d  ?pl1  ^  tV  '""?!  u^^^'^  P^'^^^  ^"^P^*-^^  ^««e'  ^nd  flourish- 
hi.CunVti'  J^^'o^ld  be  a  curious  subject  to  investigate  the 
history  ot  the  ongm  and  use  of  money,  and  its  progressive  in- 

practical  use  to  Americans,  in  their   present  condition,  it  is 
sufficient  for  them  to  learn  whether  its  present  use,  or  the 
means  which  are  practised  to  accumulate  it,  have  a  tendency 
o  advance  our  political  happiness,  or  to  perpetuate  the  dura^ 
1.?       i^'l*''  °''^''  repubhcan  privileges.     If  the  great  object  of 
accumulating  money  is  not  to  meliorate  the  condition  of  our 
country,  by  facilitating  the  means  of  subsistence  generally,  and 
making  our  citizens  wiser  and  better,  is  it  not^questionable, 
wnfpZ    -M""*!^^'^  ""^  our  money  capital,  and  our  population 
will  essentia  ly  advance  the  happiness,  and  the  durable  strength 
of  our  repubhc.^     It  has  been  remarked  that  the  strength  of  a 
nation  IS  derived  from  the  character,  not  from  the  weaTth,  nor 
Iroin  the  number  of  its  people.     And  of  the  truth  of  this  re- 
mark ancient  Sparta  has  furnished  us  with  an  example.     The 
republic  of  Sparta  after  Lycurgus  had  suppressed  the  circula- 
tion of  gold  and  silver  corns,  and  introduced  money  made  of 
iron,  as  the  only  circulating  medium,  and  enforced  bV  law  such 
a  distribution  of  property  that  there  were  no  citizens  either 
^'.Hn''' T'' T  7'^^  ^  ^"^'^  population  than  the  surrounding 
^nS      V^""""'^'^^  ?'  ^r^"'  th^  ^"°^t  powerful  and  happy  re- 
public  of  Greece,  and  perhaps  of  any  other  tliat  has  ever  existed. 
Ihe  ODject  of  the  celebrated  institutions  of  Lycurgus  was  to 

Td  hpjrp^''!;'^"'  P^^^'^"!  ^"^  ^^PP^'  ^y  "^^k^ng  them  wiser 
and  better ;  by  improving  their  manners  and  habiS,  rather  than 

,n^.r'r  .f  "^  ^^T  "^^'"^^^^  extending  their  dominion  and 
Iu^'T'"^,*^^^%P°P^^'^tion.  And  Americans  should  not  forget 
that  the  policy  of  Lycurgus,  so  far  as  it  related  to  the  importance 
Ot  torramg  the  habitd  of  our  citizens  to  industry,  and  their  mor- 


INFLUENCE    OF    AGRICULTURE    ON  MANNERS.  19 

als  to  virtue,  in  establishing  a  national  character,  was  enjoined 
on  us  by  the  advice,  and  exemplified  in  the  character,  of  our 
Washington.  When  on  tlie  occasion  of  his  inauguration  to  the 
office  of  our  first  chief  magistrate,  he  admonished  them  to  hon- 
or the  men  v,  ho  with  their  own  hands  maintain  their  families, 
and  raise  up  children  who  are  inured  to  toil,  he  doubtless  saw 
in  this  class  of  citizens  the  surest  pledges  of  their  welfare,  and 
the  permanency  of  our  privileges.  This  remark  of  our  illustri- 
ous chief  was  a  salutary  reproof  to  that  class  of  overgrown 
planters  and  farmers,  who  would  degrade  the  concition  of  the 
laboring  husbandman  to  that  of  the  slave.  In  giving  lessons  to 
posterity,  his  exalted  policy  was  not  influenced  by  partial  views 
or  personal  motives  ;  by  the  pri-cie  or  prejudices  of  the  world. 
In  the  experience  of  a  life  devoted  to  the  welfare  and  glory  of 
his  country,  he  found  in  the  employment  of  agriculture,  the 
best  resources  of  individual  happiness  and  national  prosperity. 
But  although  there  have  been  characters  renovvned  for  wisdom, 
for  intellectual  capacity,  and  for  patriotism,  wlio  have  in  every 
age  and  country,  been  disposed  to  raise  the  dignity  and  improve 
the  science  of  agricultural  pursuits,  yet,  strange  as  it  may  ap- 
pear, in  Republican  America,  to  labor  in  the  field  is  unfashion- 
able! Cincinnatus  was  called  from  the  plough  to  direct  the 
destinies  of  an  empire,  that  gave  laws  to  the  world ;  and  to  the 
proffers  of  unbounded  wealth,  and  the  splendors  of  ambition  and 
of  power,  preferred  his  cottage  and  the  cultivation  of  his  little 
farm  ;  yet  among  Americans,  a  large  class  of  our  citizens,  who 
would  claim  the  exclusive  right  to  the  title  of  gentlemen,  would 
think  it  degrading  to  their  dignity  to  be  found,  as  the  deputies 
of  the  Roman  senate  found  Cincinnatus.holding  the  plough  and 
dressed  in  the  mean  attire  of  a  laboring  husbandman  !  In  re- 
publican America,  too,  many  of  our  sons  and  daughters  would 
excuse  themselves  from  honest  industry,  because  it  is  supposed 
to  be  unworthy  of  the  capacity  improved  by  science.  But  A- 
mericans  should  not  forget  what  the  lessons  of  history  and  ex- 
perience have  taught,  that  degeneracy  of  morals  and  manners 
has  invariably  originated  in  that  class  of  citizens  who  have  shun- 
ned honest  industry  as  degrading  ;  and  that  when  that  class  be- 
comes so  numerous  as  to  controul  the  current  of  popular  opin- 
ion, the  ruin  of  political  happiness  and  of  liberty  is  inevitable. 
If  then  we  love  our  country,  and  would  transmit  to  our  posteri- 
ty the  blessings  we  enjoy,  we  should  adopt  the  advice  of  our 
greatest  political  benefactor,  honor  the  men,  who  with  their 
own  hands  maintain  their  families,  and  thereby  render  agricul- 
tural pursuits  popular,  render  them  fashionable,  and  raise  them 


»20  INTRODUCTORY    ESSAYS. 

to  that  dignity,  to  which  they  should  be  elevated,  and  to  which 
they  must  be  elevated,  to  preserve  the  happiness  and  secure  the 
permanency  of  our  republic. 


ON     THE    UTILITY    AND    IMPORTANCE  OF  STUDYING   AGRICUL- 
TURE   AS    A    SCIENCE. 

Since  the  science  of  Chemistry  has  become  fashionable,  and 
been  considered  one  of  the  most  useful  and  important  sciences, 
agriculture  has  derived  from  it,  improvements  which  could  be 
obtained  from  no  other  source.     The  great  object  of  agricultur- 
al ch3(nistry  is,   to  explain  all  those  changes  in  the  arrange- 
ments of  matter,  which  are  connected  with  the  growth  and 
nourishment  of  plants  ;  the  constitution  of  different,  soils ;  and 
the  manner  in  which  lands  are  enriched  by  manure,   as  well  as 
the  particular  manner  in  v.^iich  they  are  rendered  more  fertile 
by  the  various  modes  of  cultivation.     This  knowledge  is  highly 
useful  to  the  practical  farmer,  by  furnishing  him  with  simple 
and  easy  experiments  for  directing  his  labors,  and  enabling  him 
to  pursue  a  certain  and  systematic  plan  of  improvements ;  and 
it  will  be  found  not  only  useful,  but  indispensable  in  its  apphca- 
tion,  in  most  if  not  all  his  practical  experiments.     Every  intelli- 
gent farmer,  who  can  read  our  language,  may  obtain  enough  of 
this  science,  to  render  his  labors  more  easy  and  more  efficacious. 
The  connection  of    chemistry  with  agriculture,  is  not  founded 
oil  uncertain  speculations,  but  furnishes  principles  which  must 
be  understood  and  followed,  to  insure  to  the  practical  agricultu- 
ralist any  considerable  degree  of  success.      It  is  an  erroneous 
opinion,  which  extensively  prevails,  that  the  science  which  may 
be  efficacious  in  its  application  to  the  culture  of  a  particular 
soil  and  climate,  cannot  be  so,  also,  to  that  of  others.     The  prin- 
ciples of  agriculture  are  uniform  and  universal  in  their  opera- 
tions ;  and  it  is  the  business  of  the  intelligent  farmer  to  vary 
the  application  of  them,  according  to  the  nature  and  condition 
of  the  soil  he  cultivates.     There  is  in  every  climate  some  soils 
to  be  found  which  contain  an  excess  of  some   of  the   original 
earths,  of  sand  or  clay,  for  instance.     A  chemical  analysis  of  the 
Boil,  has  proved  what  proportions  of  these  are  most  conducive  to 
fertility;  and  when  proper  proportions  of   each    cannot  be 


STUDY    OF    AGRICULTURE    AS    A    SCIENCE.  2i 

procured  What  Other  substitutes  may  prove  most  efficacious 
feir  Humphrey  Davy,  in  his  introduction  to  agricultural  chemL: 
try,  remarks,  that  some  lands  of  g-ood  apparelit  texture  are  ye 
P 'actLc^ffoif  V^'^'''  '  T'  ^""^"°^^  observation  and  cSmnL' 
inTthe  effpr      "^,"^^^"V^  ascertaining  the  cause,  or  of  remov- 
mg  the  efiect.     The  application  of  ciiemical  tests  in  such  cases 
isobvious;  for  the  soil  must  contain  some  noxious  prmcil 
Sneofre^Pn ''"^'  discovered,  an^^  probably  easily  dist^oyed! 
One  of  these  noxious  substances,  which  such  a  soil  may  contain 
IS  the  salts  of  iron.     This,   chemists  have  discoveredrmav  be 
decomposed  or  destroyed  by  lime.     But  this  defect  in  thl  soil 
^nt.Tf^h'^^^'  ""''  be  discovered  by  the  pSical^^^^^^^ 

oTanv  knoXd^^^^  may  convince  us,  that  the  farmer,  with- 

th.s,  yet  many  of  them  will  say  timt  the  k-no^idgrthTderif  e 

wmmss 

Fnrrlar,^  c!*  ^  ^  1     .  ^^  '  ^"®  Tarmers  m  many  parts  of  the  Npw 
KltivafeTfn'  S''^ '">'•'''«<'  =>"  oi'ini""  th"wheat  could  n^ 


22  INTRODUCTORY    ESSAYS. 

not  indeed  admit  of  the  practice  of  that  science  necessary  to  an 
improved  state  of  cultivation.  But  it  is  very  obvious  that  had 
tliey  preserved  records  of  it  and  assiduously  improved  them, 
as  they  probably  did  those  of  many  others  less  interesting,  it 
would  have  greatly  meliorated  their  condition. 

The  knovvledcre  of  the  mechanical  arts,  and  indeed  the  whole 
science  of  civililed  man,  has  been  the  result  of  the  prog-ressive 
improvements  of  individual  :  the  aggregate  of  their  discoveries 
has  contributed  to  these  improvements,  and  has  at  last,  ana 
after  a  long  succession  of  years,  resulted  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  variouf  arts  and  sciences  which  have  distinguished   the 
civil  from  the  natural  state.     The  mechanical  arts  depend  on 
certain  fixed  principles,  and  are  performed  by  «^"^P  ^  ami  "m- 
form  operations;  whereas  the  business  ^f  husbandry  i.  to  be 
directed  according  to  every  change  of  weather,  and  the  great 
variety  of  the  properties  in  different  soils;  and  also  many  acci- 
dents which  must  continually  vary  its  operations,  to  render 
them  successful.     From  these  and  various  other  considera  ions, 
it  is,  that  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  science  should  em. 
brace  the  experience  and  the  philosophy  of   he  whole  age  m 
which  we  live.     The  improvements  which  have  been  some- 
Ws  made  in  our  country,  and  which  are  -^Wo-d  by -^^^^^^^ 
have  resulted   from  recent  discoveries   and  obser^  ations   are 
?ound,  on  examining  the  history  of  the  science  of  ^|ncul  u  e, 
to  have  been  practised  hundreds  of  years  ago  ;  and  the  know- 
edge  of  them  but  recently  developed  to  us,  by  that  spirit  of 
enqmry    which  the   combined    ctforts  of    a  few   individuals 
has  inspired.     But  the  efforts  of  a  few  individuals   to   pro- 
moter science  of  agriculture,  cannot  he  exten-^^^^^^ 
permtnently  useful,  unless  our  farmers  generally  believe  in  its 
Fmporiance.^    And  there  is  among  our  citr.ens,  a  disposition 

oo   prevalent,  to  treat  every  P^^PO^^^^^"  .^^VT^^^^f.^t 
chimerical,   or   a   useless   innovation.     This  disposition  is  not 
unprecedented.     Instances  enough  might  be  adduced  in  v^^^^^^^ 
error  has  been  venerated  for  its  antiquity,  wlnle  truth  has  been 
discarded   for  its  novelty      Ev^n  in  this  enlightened  r^^^^^^^^^ 
this  age  of  reason  and  philosophy,  the  first  f  «f^^  ^^1^^^^^,  ^^^^ 
lition  of  any  popular  custom,  however  absurd,  ^^^  ^^en  charg 
ed  with  the  e]>ithet  of  a  visionary  project      B"\  '^^f^^^.^ 
would  estimate  the  correctness  of  their  habits  ^"^  thej^  P^f J^  ^ 
dices  by  the  antiquity  of  their  origin,  or  are  ^vdlmg  to  lim 
their  knowledffc  to  those  improvements  which  are  the  result 
ofXir  own  personal  observations  and  experience  should  b^^ 
reminded  that  the  idea  of  treating  agriculture  as  a  science 
a^d  of  improving  its  condition,  by  collecting  and  recording  the 


STUDY  OF  AGRICULTURE  AS  A  SCIENCE.  23 

precepts  and  discoveries  which  relate  to  it,  is  not  a  new  one. 
Three  thousand  years  ago,  the  Greeks,  whose   wisdom  and 
whose  science  gave  to  the  nature  of  man  a  new  and  distin- 
guished lustre,  coiisidered   that  the   business  of  agriculture 
could  not  well  succeed  and  progress  towards  perfection,  with- 
out a  knowledge  of  those  precepts  which  had  resulted  from  a 
long  series  of  observations  and  experiments,  which  should  em- 
brace the  piiiiosophy  and  the  practical  discoveries  of  the  whole 
age  in  which  they  lived.     Several  writers  among  that  illustri- 
ous people,  employed  themselves  in  collecting  such  precepts, 
and  recording  them  for  their  own  improvement,  and  the  benefit 
of  their  posterity.     Several  of  their  celebrated  philosophers, 
as  Demacritus,  Archylas,  and  Epicharmas,  left  useful  instruc- 
tions on  the  subject  of  agriculture  ;   and  many  ages  before 
them,  they  had  been  sung  by  Hesicod,  in  one  of  his  poems. 
And  many  of  those  precepts  were  transmitted  through  suc- 
cessive generations  to  our  ancestors.     Whatever  knov/ledge 
of  those  precepts  is  possessed  by  their  descendants,  the  farm- 
ers in  the  United  States,  has  generally   been   acquired    by 
either  tradition  or  observation.     Traditions,  it  will  be  acknov/i- 
edged,   are  often  founded  in  error,  and  the  evils  resulting  from 
them  descend  from  generation  to  generation.     The  observa- 
tions and  successful  experiments  of  intelligent  farmers,  it  is 
evident,  cannot  be  extensively  communicated  to   others,   but 
through  the  medium  of  the  press.     Such  is  the  condition  of 
many  young  gentlemen,  when  they  commence  the  business  of 
agriculture,  that  they  have  to  depend  for  their  knowledge  on 
their  own  practical  experiments  :  to  acquire  this  so  as  to  ren- 
der their  labors  most  efficacious,  may,  and  often  does,  require 
the  greatest  and  best  part  of  their  lives  ;  when  by  a  very  little 
expense  of  time  and  money,  they  may  learn  from  books  what 
have  been  the  results  of  the  most  important  experiments  in  the 
history  of  agricultural  science.     It  is  very  obvious,  then,  that 
the  maxims  and  principles  which  relate  to  it,  should  be  correct- 
ly recorded  and  studied,  as  other  sciences.     The  innumerable 
volumes  that  have  been  written  upon  this  subject,  among  the 
wisest  and  most  learned  nations,  may  convince  us  that  it  has 
been  so  considered  by  them,  and  not  regarded  as  a  matter  very 
easily  understood.     But  the  great  mass  of  our  common  farmers, 
whose  minds  are  not  much  enlightened  by  general  scicnce| 
cannot  expect  their  occupation  will  ever  be  elevated  in  public 
opinion,  to  that  dignity  among  the  employments  of  men,  which 
it  ought  to  sustain,  so  long  as  they  are  disposed  to  treat  it  as  a 
mere  menial  exercise,  and  unworthy  the  efforts  of  intellectual 
capacity.     The  knowledge  which  gives  man  hi^  supremacy 


24 


INTRODUCTORY   ESSAYS. 


over  the  beasts  of  the  field,  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  which 
bestows  on  individuals  among  mankind,  a  pre-eminence  more 
substantial  and  less  invidious  than  birth,  wealth,  titles,  or  pop- 
ular applause,  can  be  acquired  only  by  three  modes,  observa- 
tion, conversation,  and  reading-.  Althoug-h  observation  and 
conversation  are  fruitful  resources  for  the  attainm.ent  of  usefal 
ideas,  the  impressions  they  make  are  but  transient,  and  when 
committed  to  no  other  record  but  that  of  the  memory,  cannot 
be  rendered  permanently  useful.  But  when  a  useful  discov- 
ery or  improvement  in  agriculture,  as  well  as  in  any  other 
occupation,  is  committed  to  the  press,  and  by  that  means  pre- 
served, they  may  thereby  become  extensively  useful,  not  only 
to  our  citizens  g-enerally,  now  on  the  stage  of'life,  but  to  remote 
posterity.  Many  of  the  sciences  are  industriously  pursued, 
and  considered  as  objects  worthy  of  great  attention,  on 
account  of  the  intellectual  pleasure  they  afford,  and  because 
they  enable  us  to  extend  our  view^s,  and  to  reason  more  cor- 
rectly concerning  the  objects  which  surround  us.  But  the 
discoveries  in  the  cultivation  of  the  earth,  are  not  confined  to 
the  time  and  country  in  which  they  are  made,  but  maybe  con- 
sidered a,s  extending  to  future  ages,  and  intended  to  meliorate 
the  condition  of  the  whole  human  race,  and  providing  subsia- 
teiice  and  enjoyment  for  generations  yet  unborn. 


AGB,1C\5LT\]RA1.  ESSAYS. 


Nature  and  Constituent  Properties  op  the  Soil. 

It  has  been  discovered  by  chemists,  that  the  soil  from  which 
we  derive  our  subsistence,  is  composed  of  several  simple  sub- 
stances, to  wit,  sand,  clay,  lime,  and  magnesia.  But  with  res- 
pect to  the  original  uncompounded  earths,  there  has  been  a  di- 
versity of  opinion :  some  of  the  ancient  philosophers  supposing 
that  matter  is  the  same  in  essence,  and  that  the  different  sub- 
«tances,  considered  as  elements  by  chemists,  are  merely  differ- 
ent arrangements  of  the  same  indestructible  particles;  that  the 
varieties  of  the  principles  to  be  found  in  plants  may  be  formed 
from  the  substances  in  the  atmosphere  ;  and  that  vegetable  life 
is  a  process  in  which  bodies  that  the  analytical  philosopher  is 
unable  to  change  or  to  form,  are  constantly  composed  or  decom- 
posed. An  opinion  has  prevailed  that  loam  is  also  an  original 
earth  ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  evidence  of  its  being  merely  an 
artificial  soil,  produced  by  calcareous  matters  and  animal  and 
vegetable  manures,  must  preponderate  against  every  opinion 
to  the  contrary.  In  the  improvement  of  agricultural  science,  it 
is  sufficient  for  the  practical  farmer  to  know  that  the  most  fer- 
tile soil  contains  the  greatest  quantity  of  sand  and  clay  for  its 
constituent  ingredients,  with  a  due  proportion  of  each;  and 
that  all  other  earthly  substances  are  to  make  up  the  other  con- 
stituent ingredients  of  such  a  soil,  by  a  judicious  application 
of  them,  as  manures.  Every  soil  in  a  productive  state,  has 
been  found  to  contain  at  least  three  of  these  simple  substances, 
or  different  kinds  of  earths,  to  wit,  sand,  lime,  and  clay,  and 
eometimes,  also,  magnesia.  It  has  been  found  also,  and  perhaps 
generally  known  by  practical  agriculturalists,  that  soils  retain 
moisture  longer  or  shorter,  accordbg  to  the  proportions  of  these 
C 


•^  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

earths.     Those  which  contain  the  greatest  quantity  of  sand,  re- 
tain it  the  shortest ;  and  those  which  contain  the  greatest  quan- 
tity of  clay,  retain  it  the  longest.      The  first  is  a  dry,  the  sec- 
ond a  wet  soil.     Lime  and  magnesia  are  intermediate  between 
these  two  extremes.      They  render  a  sandy  soil  more  reten- 
tive of  moisture,  and  diminish  the  wetness  of  a  clayey  soil. 
By  mixing  together  therefore  proper  proportions  of  these  four 
earths,  we  may  form  a  soil  of  any  degree  of  dryness  or  mois- 
ture, which  can  be  effected  by  human  agency.     The  degree  of 
its  moisture  must  ultimately  depend  on  the  quantity  of  rain 
which  falls ;  though  it  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  discov- 
ered, that  in  certain  soils,  the  farmer  may,  by  apportioning  the 
different  constituents  of  his  soil,  in  some  degree,  mitigate  the 
evils  which  otherwise  might  result  from  extraordinary  degrees 
of  drought  and  moisture,  occasioned  by  the  diversity  of  the  sea- 
sons.    It  may  be  considered  a  fundamental  principle  m  agricul- 
tural operations,  that  the  four  simple  substances  which  have 
been  mentioned,  do  not  constitute  a  fertile  soil,  in  whatever  pro- 
portions they  may  be  mixed.      This  has  been  proved  by  vari- 
ous experiments.     Among  others,  Giobert  mixed  together  the 
four  earths,  sand,  clay,  lime  and  magnesia,  in  the  proper  pro- 
portions, to  constitute  a  fertile  soil ;  and  after  moistening  them 
with  pure  water,  planted  several  vegetables  in  them;  but  none 
of  them  grew  well,  till  he  moistened  his  soil  with  water  from  a 
dunghill.     Lampodius  planted  different  vegetables  in  compart- 
ments of  his  garden,  filled  each  with  only  one  of  the  pure 
earths,  and  v;atered  them  with  the  liquor  which  exuded  from  a 
dunghill.     They  all  grew,  notwithstanding  the  diversity  of  the 
soil.     From  the  experiment  of  Giobert,  it  appears  that  the  pure 
earths  cannot  be  mixed  so  as  to  make  a  fertile  soil,  without  the 
application  of  vegetable  manure;''^  and  by  that  of  Lampodius, 
that  by  an  application  of  a  suitable  proportion  of  this  manure 
with  either  one  of  the  simple  earths,  a  productive  soil  may  be 
created.     It  would  perhaps  be  a  useless  effort  of  the  philosoph- 
ic mind,  to  inquire  respecting  the  origin  of  the  first  fertilizino- 
principle    which     produced'^  the    forests    which      generally 
cover  the  earth  in  its  primeval  or  natural  state.     It  is  sufficient 
for  the  practical  farmer  to  know  that  their  foliage  is  continual- 
ly deposited  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  that  the  fertihty  of 
the  soil  is  thereby  increased.   And  if  by  cultivation  we  would 
create  or  continue  that  fertility,  we  must  by  industry  endeavor 
to  imitate  the  operation  of  nature,  by  restoring  to  the  soil  that 

*  By  vegetable  manure  is  understood  every  vegetable  or  animal 
substance,  in  a  decayed  or  decomposed  state. 


NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  THE  SOlt.  5^ 

necessary  ingredient  of  its  fertility  which  the  vegetative  prin- 
ciple has  provided.  But  it  is  of  great  importance  to  learn 
what  proportions  of  the  simple  earths  and  vegetable  manure  are 
requisite  to  create  a  ^rtile  soil.  Much  useful  information  on 
this  subject  may  be  derived  from  the  result  of  a  late  investiga- 
tion. A  quantity  of  soil,  of  a  supposed  average  quality,  was  ta- 
ken from  a  farm  in  the  vicinity  of  Albany,  in  the  State  of  New- 
York;  and  on  being  analyzed,  was  found  to  be  composed  of  the 
following  constituent  substances : 

Sand,        -        -        -        56-lOOths. 

Clay,    -         -         -         -    26-lOOths. 

Vegetable  manure,     -         12-lOOths. 

Soluble  Salts,  -  -  6-lOOths. 
The  farm  containing  this  soil  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most 
productive  in  the  northern  states.  It  should  be  here  remark- 
ed, that  salts  soluble  by  water,  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  are 
one  of  the  necessary  constituent  ingredients  of  plants.  With 
respect  to  the  practical  use  of  the  above  analysis,  it  may  be  ob- 
served, that  in  every  part  of  our  country  where  any  considera- 
ble improvements  have  been  made,  there  are  many  tracts  of 
land  which  are  barren  beyond  what  the  general  complexion  of 
the  soil  would  indicate,  and  which  cannot  be  made  fertile  by 
the  application  of  any  vegetable  manure  which  can  be  obtained. 
In  many  of  those  soils  it  will  be  found  that  the  defect  may  be 
Ihe  want  of  a  proper  apportionment  of  the  primitive  eartiis. 
For,  from  what  has  been  asserted  and  proved  too,  by  actual  ex- 
periment, it  is  evident  there  may  be  such  great  proportions  of 
some  of  the  primitive  earths,  in  some  soilsj  as  to  render  them 
birron,  without  ihe  application  of  more  proper  manure  iiiari 
the  occupant  can  procure  :  when  by  increasing  the  quantity' 
of  some  of  the  primitive  earths,  a  great  degree  of  fertility  may 
be  produced  in  some  soils,  with  the  application  of  but  a  very 
small  portion  of  vegetable  mariure.  Suppose,  for  instance,  the 
soil  of  the  farm,  the  analysis  of  which  has  been  given,  had  con- 
sisted of  02  parts  clay,  and  20  parts,  instead  of  58  parts,  sand, 
and  2Ct  clay;  the  inference  is  very  obvious  that  the  12  parts  of 
vegetable  manure,  which  was  found  in  that  soil,  would  not  have 
rendered  it  fertile,  as  it  was,  unless  the  proportion  ofthesandto 
the  clay  had  been  greatly  increased.  May  we  not  then  con- 
clude from  that  analysis,  that  the  proper  apportionment  of  the 
sand  and  clay,  had  as  important  an  agency  in  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  as  that  of  the  vegetable  manure.  For  although  it  would 
seem  from  the  experiment  of  Giobert,  referred  to  above,  that 
the  primitive  earlhs  are  not  productive  without  the  application 
of  vegetable  manure  ;  yet  it  is  found,  also,  by  experhncnt,  that. 


3S  AGRICULTURAL    BSSaYS* 

vegetable  manure,  of  itself,  cannot  be  rendered  productive  with- 
out the  agency  of  some  of  the  primitive  earths,  c^'rom  what 
has  been  disclosed  on  this  subject,  the  intelligent  farmer  may 
be  convinced  that  amixture  of  the  primitijt-e  earths,  as  well  as 
the  application  of  vegetable  manure,  is  indispensable  to  the  fer- 
tility of  the  soil.  It  is  very  evident  too,  that  the  proportion  of 
these  several  ingredients  of  a  fertile  soil  must  be  somewhat  va- 
ried, according  to  the  climate.  In  a  very  warm  climate,  on  a 
soil  composed  principally  of  sand,  the  expediency  of  applying 
clay,  when  it  can  be  had,  as  well  as  a  due  proportion  of  vege- 
table manure,  is  obvious.  As  it  is  of  great  importance  in  a  ju- 
dicious system  of  farming,  to  learn  the  condition  of  the  natural 
soil,  or  the  apportionment  of  the  simple  earths  which  constitute 
it,  the  following  remarks  of  a  distinguished  agriculturalist, 
more  fully  explain  the  principles  which  relate  to  it,  and  are  of 
too  much  interest  to  the  farmer  to  be  omitted  :  "The  obsta- 
cles which  baJSie  the  hopes  of  improvement  are  just  as  likely  to 
lie  in  the  subsoil  which  is  placed  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plough- 
share, as  in  the  upper  surface,  w^hich  is  more  immediately  sub- 
jected to  culture  ;  and  for  this  reason  neither  of  them  ought  to 
be  disregarded.  A  coat  of  stiff  clay  has  been  rendered  pro- 
ductive by  the  mere  circumstance  of  resting  on  a  bed  of  sand, 
or  a  rock  of  limestone;  and  therefore,  every  cultivator,  if  he 
would  pursue  a  successful  course,  should  (if  he  finds  invisible 
defects  in  his  soil  Vvhich  defeat  liis  efforts)  dig  pits  in  various 
places  of  it,  at  least  eighteen  inches  down,  that  he  may  discov- 
er the  materials  on  which  he  is  to  operate.  The  subsoil  may 
furnish  him  with  the  means  by  which  to  meliorate  the  surface. 
Clay,  called  in  agricultural  publications,  alumine,  or  argillace- 
ous earth,  is  a  substance  so  familiarly  known  that  it  needs  no 
particular  description.  When  pure,  it  is  white  ;  but  in  general 
it  is  found  discolored  by  the  mineral  waters,  which  are  perpet- 
ually escaping  from  their  beds  and  running  on  the  surface.  It 
is  tinged  with  blue,  brown,  grey  and  red  shades,  for  it  has  a 
strong  affinity  to  all  coloring  matter.  As  an  ingredient  of  soil, 
it  has  the  four  following  properties,  by  which  it  exerts  a  power- 
ful effect  on  vegetation :  it  absorbs  water  like  a  sponge,  and 
is  so  close  in  the  texture,  as  to  prevent  it  from  filtrating  through 
its  pores.  When  thoroughly  soaked  and  afterwards  dried,  it 
hardens  and  cakes  into  a  solid  mass.  It  shrinks  considerably 
in  bulk  when  exposed  to  heat,  and  the  contraction  of  its  parts  is 
in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  that  heat.  It  powerfully  re- 
tards putrefaction,  by  enclosing  animal  and  vegetable  remains, 
and  thus  shutting  out  the  dissolvent  action  of  the  external  air.* 

''Mr.  Davy,  ia  his  elements  of  agricultural  chemistry,  remark?, 


NAT^URE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  THE  SOIL.  2^ 

The  roots,  which  are  the  collectors  of  the  nutriment,  and  are 
withal  of  a  tender  and  delicate  texture,  cannot  easily  stretch 
themselves  in  a  substance  of  such  stiffness  and  tenacity;  and 
which  besides,  so  readily  consolidates  after  rain  into  a  compact 
body.  Its  closeness  opposes  material  resistance  to  their  extent 
sion,  and  accordingly  in  its  unmellowed  state,  the  fibres  arer 
hampered  from  extending  themselves.  Besides,  admitting  that 
they  overcome  in  part  this  obstacle  in  the  soil,  they  must, 
whenever  it  hardens  in  the  sun  and  gapes  into  chinks,  be  vio- 
lently torn  asunder  and  separated  from  the  stem.  If  clay  be  so 
hurtful  on  the  surface,  it  is  almost  equally  pernicious  in  the  sub- 
soil, from  the  capacity  it  has  of  interrupting  the  passage  of  wa- 
ter downward,  and  keeping  the  roots  perpetually  drenched,  an 
evil  no  less  destructive  to  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  plant  than 
the  opposite  extreme.  All  its  qualities  are  unfriendly  to  vege- 
tation, except  its  capacity  of  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture, 
and  this  is  of  so  much  importance,  as  in  some  measure,  to  make 
atonement  for  its  other  defects.  When  existing  by  itself,  this 
virtue  which  it  possesses  in  so  eminent  a  degree,  is  useless  and 
unavailing ;  but  when  mixed  with  other  materials,  of  aloose  and 
friable  nature,  it  gives  tenacity  and  firmness  to  the  whole,  and 
is  highly  retentive  of  the  dews  and  rains  which  fall  to  fertilize 
the  soil.  Sand  or  gravel,  called  sometimes  silex,  silica,  silicious 
matter,  or  earth  of  flints,  is  distinguished  by  properties  of  a  to- 
tally opposite  character.  Sand  is  incapable  of  retaining  water 
when  poured  upon  it,  and  far  less  of  attracting  moisture  from 
the  atmosphere.  It  powerfully  promotes  putrefaction,  but  al- 
lows the  gasses  set  at  liberty,  to  escape.  It  has  little  or  no  co- 
hesion among  its  parts,  and  never  binds  by  the  alternations  of 
wet  and  dry,  into  a  compact  body.  It  will  appear  from  this  ac- 
count of  the  properties  of  sand,  that  it  is  provided  as  a  correct- 
er  of  alumine,  or  clay,  and  that  in  their  effects,  the  two  are  des- 
tined to  counteract  each  other.  Sand  suffers  water  to  filter  ea- 
sily ;  clay  is  highly  retentive  :  sand  promotes  putrefaction  ;  clay 
delays  it,  but  absorbs  the  gasses  which  are  formed  in  the  de- 
composition: sand  opens  an  unobstructed  path  for  the  exten- 
sion of  the  roots  :  clay  gives  them  firmness  in  their  course,  and 
supplies  the  moisture  which  sustains  them.    Thus  we  see,  that 

that  one  cause  of  the  nnproductiveness  of  cold,  clayey,  adhesive 
soils  is,  that  the  seed  is  coated  with  matter  impenetrable  to  air, 
and  that  in  clayey  soils,  there  can  scarcely  be  toog^reat  a  mechan- 
ical division  of  parts  in  the  process  of  tillaofe.  And  seed,  says  he, 
not  fully  supplied  with  air,  always  produces  a  weak  and  diseased 
plant. 

e  2 


30  AGRICULTURAL   £SSAt3. 

by  their  union  their  common  virtues  are  heightened,  while  their 
defects  are  rectified  and  subdued."  It  is  very  obvious  there- 
fore, that  a  mixture  of  those  two  kinds  of  earth  will  greatly  in- 
crease the  value  of  the  soil.  "Lime,  called  calcareous  earth, 
enters  into  the  composition  of  soils.  This  is  never  found  in  its 
pure  state,  but  in  combination  with  carbonic  acid,  for  which  it 
has  so  strong  an  affinity,  that  it  attracts  it  from  the  atmosphere. 
It  is  closer-  than  sand,  and  much  less  adhesive  than  clay.  It 
occVipies  therefore  ft.  middle  region  between  the  two,  free 
from  their  imperfections,  and  blending  their  common  qualities. 
It  is  a  powerful  promoter  of  putrefaction,  and  helps  to  decom- 
pose the  anini&l  aud  vegetable  matter  lying  in  the  soil.  To 
this  circumstance  is  owing  i^  a  great  measure  its  efficacy,  as  a 
manure.  It  has  the  power  of  fixing  and  retaining  a  very  great 
quantity  of  carbonic  acid,  and  although  it  combines  chemically 
with  a  certain  portion,  which  can  only  be  expelled  by  red  heat, 
yet  the  excess  can  easily  be  disengaged  in  a  low  temperature, 
and  thus  tends  to  nourish  the  growing  crops.  This  earth  ex- 
ists in  abundance  among  the  solid  strata  of  our  globe,  mostly 
without  any  foreign  mixture,  except  the  acids  with  which  it 
combines ;  but  is  occasionally  blended  also,  v/ith  the  other  prim- 
itive masses.  With  carbonic  acid  it  forms  the  most  frequent 
compounds;  denominated  carbonates  of  lim.e,"^  and  assumes  a 
variety  of  appearances,  and  even  possesses  distinct  properties. 
Spar,  marble,  stalactites,  limestone  and  chalk,  are  all  Jiarieties 
of  this  combination.  With  the  sulphuric  acid,  (which  is  com- 
posed of  sulphur  and  oxigen,)  it  forms  plaster  of  paris.  It  is  al- 
so found  ml.-'.ed  with  clay,  and  sometimes  with  sand,  and  then 
receives  the  appellation  of  marble,  and  which  is  valuable  pre- 
cisely in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  this  earth."  Magnesia, 
the  last  earth  v/hich  has  been  found  in  soils,  and  that  too,  in  a 
much  smaller  proportion  than  the  other  tliree,  is  a  substance 
with  which  every  farmer  must  be  acquainted,  since  it  is  com- 
monly used  as  a  medicine  of  the  shops.  Its  properties  are 
nearly  analogous  to  those  of  lime,  and  were  long  supposed  to 
operate  in  the  same  way.  It  has  also  a  strong,  though  less,  af- 
finity for  carbonic  acid,  and- often  forms  a  constituent  principle 
in  lime-stone  rock.  Agricultiirali^s  are  divided  at  present, 
with  respect  to  its  usefulness  as  a  manure.  Some  of  them 
holding  it  to  be  poisonous  to  plants,  while  others  support  it  by 
an  appeal  to  experiments.     But  it  is  thought  to  be  uncertain 

*  Carbonate  of  lime  is  not  soluble  in  water,  unless  the  wa  • 
ter  itself  be  charged  with  carbonic  acid.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  * 
compound  of  lime  86,  carbonic  acid  44. 


NATURE  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  THE  SOIL.       3i 

whether  our  limestone  contains  any  portion  of  magnesia.     It  ie 
only  pernicious  when  applied  in  an  excessive  dose;   and  Uns 
holds  equally  true   with  respect  to  ime,  for  these  two  eaithe 
should,  in  all  cases,  be  used  sparingly  by  the  skdful  cultivator. 
Loam  is  by  no  means  a  distinct  body,  possessing  m  itselt  ap- 
propriate and  marked  characters,  as  many  of  our  farmers  sup- 
pose :  but  is  a  combination  of  clay,  sand,  or  calcareous   matter. 
The  diversity  which  exists  among  what  are  accounted  loams,  is 
a  decisive  proof  of  this;  some  of  them  we  denominate  clayey, 
from  the  excess  of  argillaceous  matter ;  others  open  and  light, 
from  the  preponderance  of  sand.     Mould,  as   it  is  sometimes 
called,  contains  the  putrid  relics  of  organized  substances   t^i at 
have  grown  auil  decayed  upon  it,  or  have  been  conveyed  tluther 
in  the  prooress  of  cultivation.      The  resident  earth  remaining 
after  the  process  of  dissolution,  is  extremely  lio'ht  m  weight, 
and  always  of  a  blackish  color.     It  is  owing  to  this,  that  a  gar- 
den which  has  been  under  long  continued  culture,  approaches 
to  a  black  tinge,  progressively  deepening,  according  to  the  a- 
bundance  of  this  matter.     Soils  lying  in  the  territory  of  an  old 
countrv,  are  found  to  contain  various  chemical  compounds,  min- 
eral salts,  and  metallic  oxids;    some  of  which  are  beneficial, 
others  harmless,  and  a  few  injurious  to  vegetation ;  and  which 
either  pre-existed  in  the  strata  from  which  the  surface  has 
been  formed,  or  have  been    carried  to  it  by  subterraneous 
sprino-s,  or  by  foreign  causes,  operating  in  the  course  ot  past 
ao-es^The  most  frequent  are  epsom  and  common  salts  combin- 
ations of  potash,  lime  and  magnesia,  with  the  acid  and  oxid  ot 
iron,  which  is  just  the  rust  produced  by  exposing  this  metal  to 
the    action   of  the    air.      It  is  this  oxid    which     gives   the 
brown  and  redish  color,  as  well  as  the  intermediate  shades,  to 

sand  and  clay.  ,  u    j     •     4 

It  seems  plain  that  considerable  advantages  may  be  derived 
to  the  practical  farmer,  from  analyzing  the  different  kinds  of 
soils,  from  comparing  the  proportion  ot  the  earths  in  the  pro- 
ductive,  with  those  found  in  the  barren,  from  studymg  the 
separate  effects  of  these  ingredients,  and  from  ail  these  re- 
sults, deducing  the  most  skilful  plan  of  procedure  m  effec- 
tuating permanent  improvements.  But  the  usual  process 
which  the  learned  chemist  would  adopt,  m  analyzmg  soils,  19 
too  laborious  and  intricate  for  practical  use  to  farmers  in  gen- 
eral. The  following  simple  process  is  within  their  reach,  and 
may  lead  them  to  adopt  for  themselves  more  accurate  and  per- 
fectmethods.  In  the  field  to  be  examined,  take  earth,  a  little  be- 
low the  surface,  from  four  separate  places,  about  1-4  if',  avoir- 
dupois, from  each.    Expose  it  to  the  sun,  or  before  the  fire,  tiii 


3*^  AGRICULTURAL  ESSAYS. 

it  is  completely  dry,  and  turn  it  over  frequently,  that  it  may  be 
^  well  mixed  together.     From  the  heap  take  exactly  4  ounces, 
and  pass  it  through  a  sieve,  which  will  allow  all  the  particles 
of  sand  and  gravel   to   escape,   but  hold  back  stones,  small 
fibrous  roots,  and  decayed  wood.  WeigJi  the  two  parts  separate- 
ly, and  take  a  note  of  each.     The  stones  and  other  bulky  ma- 
terials are  then  to  be  examined  apart  from  the  roots  and  wood. 
If  they  are  hard   and  rough  to  the  touch,  and  scratch  glass 
easily,  they  are  silicious,  or  flinty  ;  if  they  are  without  much 
difficulty  broken  to  pieces  with  the  fingers,  and  can  be  scraped 
by  a  knife  to  powder,   they  are  aluminous,  or  clayey  :  or  if 
when  put  in  a  wine  glass,  and  lemon  vinegar  poured  upon 
them,  small  air  bubbles  ascend  to  the  top  of  the,  liquid,  they  are 
calcaraeous.     The  finely  divided  matter  wliich  ran  through  the 
sieve,  must  next  undergo  the  test  of  experiment     After  being 
weighed,  agitate  the  whole  in  water,  till  the  earth  be  taken  up 
from  the  bottom,  and  mechanically  suspended,  adding  water 
till  this  efiTect  be  produced.     Allow  the  mass  then  to  settle  for 
two  or  tliree  minutes,  and  in  that  time  the  sandy  particles  shall 
have  all  sunk  to  the  bottom.     Pour  off*  the  water,  which  will 
then  contain  the  clay  in  suspension,  with  the  insoluble  earth 
arising  from  animal  and  vegetable  decomposition.     The  sand 
should   first   be  attended   to;    and  if,  from  inspection,  it  be 
thought  either  silicious  or  calcareous  in  its  nature,  the  requi- 
site tests  may  be  instantly  applied.     By  this  time  the  mixture 
will  have  deposited  at  tlie  bottom  of  the  vessel,  the  clay  and 
other  earths,  with  the  insoluble  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 
After  pouring  off  the   water,  dry  tlie  sedeinent,  and  apply  a 
strong  fire  by  placing  it  on  the  bottom  of  a  pot  heated  to  red- 
ness, and  the  animal  and  vegetable  matter  will  burn  and  fly  off 
in  uniform  products.     The  remainder  lying  in  the  bottom,  will 
be  found  to  consist  of  clay,  magnesia,  and  lime.     To  obtain 
accuracy,   another  1-4   lb.  of  earth  should  be  taken  from  the 
same  heap,  and  the  whole  process  gone  over  a  second  tune, 
that  the  operator  may  rectify  any  blunders  he  had  previously 
committed,  and  be  satisfied  as  to  the  result  of  his  experiments. 
He  should  provide  himself  with  a  pair  of  scales,  and  a  set  of 
weights,  divided  at  least  into  ounces  and  drachms.     Although 
vinegar  will  detect  lime  by  eflTervescence,  it  does  not  dissolve 
it  so  eflfectually  as  the  nitre,  or  muriatic  acid  ;  small  quantities 
of  which  may  be  procured  from  the  druggists  at  no  great  ex- 
pense.    The  importance  of  sometimes  resorting  to  an  analysis 
of  the  soil,  will  appear,  from  the  consideration  that  many  soils, 
apparently  of  good  texture,  are  yet  "barren  in  a  high  degree, 
when,  as  has  been  observed  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  common 


NATURE    AND    PROPERTy    ON    THE    SOIL  3tJ 

observation  and  common  practice,  afford  no  means  of  ascer- 
taining the  cause,  or  of  removing  the  effect.     And  also,  when 
it  is  considered  that  the  primitive  earths,  clay  and  sand,  con- 
tain, each  perhaps  in  nearly  equal  degrees,  the  food  of  plants ; 
and  that  in  their  union,  the  purposes  of  vegetation  are  most 
completelv    answered.      What    precise    quantities    of  each 
maybe  necessary,  to  make  this  union  perfect,  it  is  neitlier  very 
easy  nor  very  material  to  ascertain,  since  that  point  is  best  de- 
termined in  practice,  when  the  soil  proves  to  be  neither  too 
stiff  nor  adhesive  from  the  superabundance  of  clay,  nor  of  too 
loose  and  weak  a  texture  from  an  over  quantity  of  sand  in  its 
composition.     The  medium  is  undoubtedly  best;   though  an 
exc&ss  towards  adhesion  is  obviously  the  most  safe.     But  when, 
from  the  situation  of  the  soil,  there  must  necessarily  be  a  defi- 
ciency of  either  sand  or  clay,  the  most  perfect  remedy  for  that 
deficiency,  is  compost  manure,  or  decomposed  animal  and  veg- 
etable substances.     For  compost  manure,  whether  it  is  made 
up  solely  of  these  substances,  or  with  barn  dung  intermixed 
vv'ith  them,  is  the  product  of  all  the  nutritive  ingredients  v.-hich 
are  essential  to  vegetation.     It  is  therefore  the  most  certain 
and  durable  agent  in  promoting  fertility  ;  and  is  not  only  the 
most  salutary  substitute  for  either  of  the  primitive  snnple  earths, 
bat  tlie  most  powerful  auxiliary,  to  render  them  efficacious.     It 
should  be  observed,  that  what  are  sometimes  called  gravelly 
soils,  may  be  distinguished  from  sandy  soils,  in  this,  that  the 
former  is  chiefiy  composed  of  small  soft  stones ;  though   in 
some  instances,  the  stones  are  of  the  silicious,  or  flinty  nature, 
and  in  others,  of  the  calcareous,  or  chalky.     From  these  con- 
stitutional circumstances,   arises  the  propriety   of  deepemng 
gravelly  soils  by  coats  of  marl,  or  keeping  them  fresh  by  fre- 
quent returns  of  grass,  and  repeated  applications  of  manure. 
Like  sand,  they  are  naturally  barren,  unless  mixed  v/ith  other 
earths;  an  1  the  surface  would  exhibit  the  same  appearance  as 
the  subsoil,  or  what  is  beyond  the  reach  of  the  plough,  were  it 
not  changed  ajid  meliorated  by  vegetable  manure.     The  con- 
stitutional  qualities   of  gravels  also  point  out  the  propriety   of 
ploughing  them  deep,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  soil  may  be 
augmented,  or   rather  its  fertility  increased,  by  exposing  the 
subsoil  to  the  salutary  influences  of  the  sun  and  atmospheric  air. 
Although  mucli  more  useful  information  might  be  disclose  1  on 
this  subject,  yet  enough  has  been  aaid  to  convince  the  farmer, 
that  if  he  would  render  his  efforts  successful,  he  should  make 
the  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  the  soil  he  would 
cultivate,  a  fundamental  principle. 


^  AURICCLTURAL    ESSAYS. 

Food  of  Vegetables,  and  the  Manner  in  which  it  i% 

COMMUNICATED  TO  THE  PlaNT. 

Vegetables  are  probably  the  most  numerous  class  of  bodies 
which  belong  to  our  globe  ;  more  than  forty  thousand  of  tho 
species  having  already  been  discovered,  and  additions  are  con- 
tinually making  to  the  number.     It  has  been  shown  in  a  former 
essay,  that  no  plant  which  we  cultivate  can  be  brought  to  ma- 
turity, without  the  nourishment  derived  from  some  kind  of  veg-- 
etable  manure.     If,  therefore,  we  would  ascertain  what  kind  of 
manure  is  best  adapted  to  the  different  plants,   ana  the  best 
mode  ot  applying  it,  we  must  have  some  knowledge  of  the  pro- 
cess by  which  the  seed,  after  it  is  committed  to  the  earth,  ger- 
minates and  progresses  towards  perfection.     It  is  well  known 
by  all  who  cultivate  the  earth,  that  seeds  of  any  kind  will  not 
germinate  without  a  certain  degree  of  heat  and  moisture.   But 
we  are  indebted  to  chemists  for  the  discovery  that  seeds  will 
not  germinate,  unless  atmospheric  air,  or  eome  air  havino-  the 
same  properties,  have  access  to  it.*  '^ 

It  is  probable,  for  this  reason,  that  seeds  will  not  germinate 
at  a  certa,  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  and  for  this 
reason,  the  first  growth  of  the  plant  is  often  retarded  by  bury- 
mg  the  seed  too  deep.  Is  not  this  fact  confirmed  by  the  ob- 
servation, that  the  plant  of  any  seed  which  we  commit  to  the 
earth,  has  a  more  healthy  appearance,  and  grows  with  more 
vig-or,  the  sooner  it  makes  its  appearance  above  the  surface 
alter  it  begins  to  germinate.  As  the  progress  of  the  root  is 
dowuvvard,  no  injury  will  be  likely  to  happen  to  it  in  seasons  of 
common  moisture,  from  its  lying  too  near  the  surface  of  the 
soil;  and  by  springing  from  the  seed,  which  is  buried  no 
deeper  than  is  necessary  to  germinate,  it  will  be  more  likely  to 
derive  support  and  efficacy  from  the  noarishmonL  furnished 
trom  manure,  if  properly  applied.  That  the  farmer  may  pre- 
pare and  upply  hu  manure  in  the  most  judicious  and  efficacious 

*Oa  (his  suHfict  Mr.  Davy  remark. .  fhal  in  all  rases  ortill3«^e, 
the  seed  should  be  sowo  so  as  to  be  fully  exposed  to  the  infli.Pnco 
ofthe  air;  and  one  cause  of  the  nnproductivenes?  of  cold,  riavey 
adhesive  soils,  is,  that  tlie  seed  is  r>oated  w,fh  matt-r  imper.Hra- 
ble  to  H.r.  That  in  saudy  soils  the  air  is  ahvavs  s.ifficiently  pene- 
trable bv  the  atmosphtre;  but  in  cl:ivfy  sails.' there  can  scarcely 
bn  too  o-reat  a  ninchanical  division  of  onrfs  in  Ine  proces«o'  tillao-e- 
and  sepd  not  f,,lly  «nnp!ivd  with  air,  always  produces  a  weak  a"nd 
d.neased  pla.it.  gee  his  Oeiacnls  of  Agricultural  Chemistry, 
page  191,  192.  °  " 


??ATURE    AND    PROPERTIES    OP    THE    SOIL.  05 

manner,  it  should  be  considered,  that  whatever  may  be  the 
nature  of  the  substances  derived  from  manure,  they  cannot 
communicate  nourishment  to  the  plant,  without  first  going  into 
a  state  of  solution  ;  and  that  water  is  the  agent  made  use  of  to 
effect  this  solution.     For  as  water  has  been  proved  by  various 
experiments  to  be  insufficient,  of  itself,  to  bring  the  seeds  o^ 
any  plant  to  maturity,  while  at  the  same  time  the  presence  of  it 
is  indispensable  to  carry  on  the  process  of  vegetation,  we  are 
forced  to  conclude,  that  the  principal,  if  not  the  sole  use  of  it,  is 
to  dissolve  all  those  substances  which  form  essential  parts  of 
the   food  necessary  to  its   growth  and  maturity ;  especially, 
since  it  has  been   well  demonstrated  by  experiments,  that  all 
those  substances  may  be  dissolved  in  water.     So  far,  then,  as 
the  food  of  plants  is  supplied  by  the  soil  in  which  they  vege- 
tate, it  is  probable  that  it  is  imbibed  by  the  extremities  of  the 
roots  only.     For  it  has  been  discovered,  that  the  portion  of  the 
soil  which  is  soonest  exhausted,  is  precisely  that  part  in  v/hich 
the  greatest  number  of  the  extremities  of  roots  lie.     By  this- 
means  it  has  been  observed,  they  are  enabled  to  go  in  quest  of 
nourishment,  and  the  extremities  of  the  roots  seem  to  have  a 
peculiar  structure,  adapted  for  the  imbibing  of  moisture :  al- 
though it  has  no  visible  opening,  yet,  if  we  cut  it  off,  it  never 
increases  any  more  in  length,  and  its  use,  as  a  root,  is  in  a 
great  measure  destroyed  ;   but  its  sides  send  out  fibres  which 
act  the  part  of  roots,  and   imbibe  food  by  their  extremities. 
This  is  the  theory  in  which  chemists  are  generally  agreed, 
respecting  the  manner  in  which  food  is  communicated  to  the 
plant,  so  far  as  it  is  supplied  from  the  soil.     Plants  derive  some 
part  of  their  nourishment  from  the  atmosphere.     The  house- 
leek,  and  some  other  plants,  may  be  supported  from  the  influ- 
ences of  the  atmosphere  alone.     But  the  influence  of  the  at- 
mosphere on  the  vegetation  of  plants  generally,  is  efficacious, 
in  proportion  to  the  productive  power  of  the  soil,  or  the  efficacy 
derived  from  its  fertility.     From  what  has  been  observed,  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  nourishment  derived  from  manure,  must 
first  be  dissolved  by  the  moisture  there  is  in  the  soil,  and 
after  being  so  dissolved,  must  come  in  contact  with  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  roots  of  tJie  plant,  before  it  can  contribute  to  its 
growth  and  maturity.     It  is  not  known  that  there  is  any  attrac- 
tive power,  either  in  this  i.carishment,  or  in  the  roots  of  the 
plants,  by  means  of  which  the  former  is  communicated,  so  as  to 
promote  vegetation.     It  i  ^  obvious  the   plant  will  not  flourish, 
unless  some  such   nourishment  may  be  found  located  in  those 
parts  of  the  soil  to  which  the  extremities  of  the  roots  will,  in 
tlie  progress  of  vegetation,  become  contiguous,  or  nearly  so. 


)'^  AGRICULTUR'AL    ESSAYS. 

It  is  often  observed  by  farmers,  that  vegetable  manure,  before 
it  becomes  decomposed,  or  reduced  to  a  state  of  putrefaction, 
will  improve  the  soil,   though  it  will  not  contribute  so  much  to 
the  value  of  the  crop  the  first  year  that  it  is  applied.     This  is 
true;  but  the  application  ofundecayed  vegetable  manure,  such 
4as  straw,  &c.  spread  on  land,   and  mixed  with  the  soil  as  effec- 
tually as  is  practicable  with  the  plough  and  the  harrow,  in  the 
usual  manner  of  performing  the  operation,  will  contribute  much 
less  to  the  immediate  value  of  any  crop,  than  many  farmers 
have  believed.     The  following  account  of  a  celebrated  author,* 
on  the  science  of  chemistry,  developes  facts,  relating  to  this  sub- 
ject,  worthy  of  consideration,  and  may  be  of  much  practical  u- 
tility.     "  It  appears,"   says  he,   "from  the  e>periments  of  Mr. 
Hf.ssenfratz,  that  substances  employed  as  manures,  produce  ef- 
fects in  times  proportioned   to  their  degree  of  putrefaction: 
those  substances  which   are  most  putrid,    producing  the  most 
speedy  effects,   and  of  course,  soonest  losing  their  efficacy. 
Having  manured  two  pieces  of  the  same  kind  of  soil,  the  one 
with  a  mixture  of  dung  and  straw,  highly  putrified,  the  other 
with  the  same  mixture  newly  made,  and  the  straw  almost  fresh, 
he  observed,  that  during  the  first  year,  the  plants  which  grew 
on  the  sand  manured  with  the  putrefied  dung,  produced  a  much 
better  crop  than  the  other  :  but  the  second  year,  (no  new  dung 
being  added)  the  ground  which  had  been  manured  with  the 
unputrefied  dung,  produced  the  best  crop.     The  same  thing 
took  place  the  third  year,  after   which  both   seemed   to   be 
equally  exhausted.     Here  it  is  evident  that  the  putrefied  dimg 
acted  soonest,  and  was  soonest  exhausted.     It  follows  from  this, 
that  carbonf  only  acts  as  a  manure,  when  in  a  particular  state 
of  combination  ;  and  this  state,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  evident- 
ly produced  by  putrefaction.     Another  experiment  of  the  same 
chemist,  renders  this  truth  still   more   evident.     He  allowed 
shavings  of  wood  to  remain  for  about  ten  months  in  a  moist 
place,  till   they  began  to  putrefy,  then  spread  them  over  a 
piece  of  ground  by  way  of  mai.ure.     The  first  two  years,  this 
piece  of  ground  produced  nothing  more  than  others  which  had 

*  Thomas  Thompsoij. 

i  .Carbon  exists  pure  in  the  state  of  the  diamond  only.  It  forms 
a  constituent  part  of  marble,  of  chalk,  of  all  VF^etable  and  animal 
matter,  it  is  the  basis  of  charcoal.  Combined  with  oxigen  and 
forming  a  ^a?,  it  float?  in  the  atmosphere.  All  the  glasses  "whirh 
are  produced  whe'^  animal  matter  passes  into  a  state  of  putrefac- 
tion, beina:  absorbed  by  it,  it  is  very  important  in  resistin*  and 
checkifg  the  rrosrress  of  putrefaction.  See  Eaton's  Chemical  In- 
structor, p.  108-109, 


Mature  and  preparation  of  manure. 


37 


not  been  manured  at  all ;  the  third  year  it  was  better,  the  fourth 
year  it  was  still  better,  the  fifth  year  it  reached  its  greatest 
fertility ;  after  which  it  declined  constantly  till  the  ninth,  when 
it  was  quite  exhausted.  Here  the  effect  of  the  manure  evident- 
ly depended  upon  its  progress  in  putrefaction. 

From  this  account,  as  well  as  from  the  knowledge  we  may 
derive  from  our  own  observations  and  reflections  on  this  sub- 
ject, it  will  be  seen,  that  the  class  of  cultivators  who  depend  on 
the  immediate  produce  of  their  industry  for  support,  err  in  the 
mode  of  applying,  as  manure,  straw,  or  other  undecayed  veg- 
etable substances.  The  nutritive  powers  of  this  kind  of  ma- 
nure, contribute  something  to  its  weight,  but  very  little  to  its 
bulk ;  that  may  principally  remain,  when  its  efficacy  in  the 
growth  of  plants  is  entirely  destroyed ;  and  this  destruction 
may  be  effected  by  its  being  continually  leached  in  w^ater,  by 
being  pushed  to  excessive  fermentation,  when  deposited  in 
heaps,  or  being  much  exposed  to  alternations  of  drought  and 
moisture. 

After  its  dissolution,  the  residual  earth  remaining,  is  very 
light  in  weight,  and  always  of  a  blackish  color  ;  so  that  what- 
ever may  be  the  visible  bulk  of  such  vegetable  substances, 
after  their  nutritive  elements  are  exhausted  by  any  of  the 
means  which  have  been  mentioned  above,  or  otherwise,  they 
contain  no  matter  essentially  efficacious  as  the  proper  food  of 
vegetables. 

But  the  knowledge  of  the  manner  in  which  nourishment  is 
communicated  to  the  plant,  is  so  inseparably  connected  with 
the  science  of  preparing  and  applying  vegetable  manure,  that 
the  principles  which  relate  to  both  may  perhaps  be  better  ex- 
plained, by  considering  them  in  their  connection. 


Nature  and  Efficacy  of  the  different  MaNi^res, 
AND  the  Best  Mode  of  Preparing  and  Applyin© 
them. 

When  the  soil  in  the  United  States  becomes  exhausted,  by 

too  frequent  cropping,  or  bad  husbandry,  as  it  has  in  some  of 

the  northern  and  middle  states^    the  knowledge  of  the  nature 

and  efficacy  of  tho  different  kinds  of  manure,  and  the  best  mode 

D 


38 


AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 


of  preparing  and  applying  them,  becomes  important  to  the  far- 
mer. This  knowledge  was  lost  to  our  ancestors,  who  beo-an 
the  first  settlement  of  our  country.  They  did  not  need  it,  the 
Jand  of  new  settlements  bemg  generally  sufficiently  productive 
tor  the  purposes  of  culture.  But  it  has  now  become  necessary 
in  many  parts  of  our  country;  and  it  is  fortunate  for  us  that  we 
have  not  only  the  discoveries  of  practical  and  intelligent  far- 
mers, but  the  science  of  chemistry,  also,  to  aid  us  in  the  inves- 
tigation of  this  subject. 

Manures  are  composed  of  a  great  variety  of  substances, 
which  are  necessary  to  supply  plants  with  their  requisite  food. 

It  has  been  found  that  even  different  earths  will  serve  to  ma- 
nure each  other.  Sand  will  fertilize  a  soil  that  has  much  clay, 
and  light  sandy  soil  is  also  fertilized  by  clay.  When  clayey 
lands  are  in  grass,  the  sand  may  be  laid  on  as  a  top  dressing ; 
but  when  they  are  ploughed,  it  should  be  well  mixed  with  the 
soil,  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  its  adhesion.  Sand  which 
has  been  washed  down  in  roads  or  elsewhere,  is  best.  When 
clay  is  applied  to  a  sandy  soil,  it  should  be  carted  on  in  the  fall, 
and  spread  evenly  over  the  ground,  that  the  frosts  may  pulver- 
ize it,  before  it  is  mixed  with  the  soil-,  in  the  spring.  The  bet- 
ter these  earths  are  mixed  in  the  respective  soils,  the  more  sen- 
sible and  immediate  will  be  their  effects ;  but  they  differ  from 
most  other  kinds  of  manure  in  this,  that  they  are  calculated 
permanently  to  improve  the  soil  to  which  they  are  applied. 
Loams  are  also  in  the  same  way  assisted  by  sand,  and  sand  a- 
gain  by  them.  Sand  will  fertilize  the  soil  of  bog  meadow,  and 
this  earth  again  is  very  good  for  all  upland  soils,  but  best  for 
those  which  are  light  and  dry.  It  has  been  found  to  be  pecu- 
liarly excellent  for  Indian  corn,  when  applied  to  the  hills,  and 
it  is  said  to  be  very  good  also,  for  flax,  hemp,  and  most  other 
summer  crops.  It  is  also  friendly  to  the  growth  of  white  clo- 
ver. When  applied  to  upland  grasses,  it  should  be  laid  on  as  'a 
top  dressing. 

Every  kind  of  black  mud,  from  ponds  and  swamps,  answers 
a  good  purpose  on  a  light  and  dry  soil.  The  different  sorts  of 
marl  found  in  bog  swamps,  are  also  excellent  manures  for  all 
upland  soils.  These  earths  are  usually  found  from  one  to  three 
feet  from  the  surface,  and  are  either  of  while,  grey,  or  a  brown- 
ish color.  The  former  is  believed  to  be  most  efficacious,  and 
the  latter  the  least  so  ;  their  strength  being  in  proportion  to 
the  quantity  of  the  carbonate  of  lime,  which Ihey  contain.  It 
is  thought  best  to  mix  these  earths  with  the  mass  of  black  earth 
or  bog  dirt,  that  forms  the  upper  stratum,  in  order  to  reduce 
their  strength^  and  when  thus  mixed,  a  load  of  even  the  weak- 


J^ATURE    AND    PHEPARATION    OF    MANURE.  39 

t(st  kind  has  been  found  to  be  more  efficacious  than  two  of  the 
common  barn  dung.  Their  operation  as  manures  is  similar  to 
that  of  g-ypsum,  having  little  or  no  effect  when  first  applied  to 
wheat  or  rye  ;  but  by  its  afterwards  covering  the  ground  with  a 
thick  growth  of  white  clover,  it  is  then  rendered  fit  for  produc- 
ing largely  of  these  crops.  They  are  peculiarly  excellent  for 
Indian  corn,  and  all  summer  grain,  and  a  less  quantity  is  suffi- 
cient. They  may  be  used  as  top  dressings.  It  will  be  recol- 
lected that  in  all  the  older  states,  considerable  tracts  of  land 
are  frequently  found  to  consist  of  these  bog  meadows  and 
swamps,  as  they  are  usually  called,  which  are  often  surrounded 
by  a  dry  barren  soil ;  all  of  which,  by  applying  the  manures 
they  contain,  as  above  described,  may  be  gradually  converted 
into  healthy  and  productive  soils,  capable  of  supporting  thou- 
sands of  our  citizens,  with  the  necessaries  and  conveniences  of 
life. 

Ashes,  as  manure,  are  found  to  be  more  efficacious,  m^some 
parts  of  the  country,  than  in  others  ;  most  so  when  applied  to 
lands  near  the  ocean.  They  generally  answer  the  most  valua- 
ble parpose,  when  applied  to  Indian  corn,  especially  on  such 
soils  as  are  not  suitable  to  this  plant.  When  the  soil  is  wet, 
cold,  loamy,  or  clayey,  the  plants  are  apt  to  become  stunted  by 
tha  cold  rains,  which  usually  fall  after  planting,  and  the  ashes, 
in  such  cases,  supply  the  natural  deficiency  of  the  soil,  till  it 
becomes  fertilized  by  the  summer  sun.  But  when  the  soil  is 
natural  to  the  growth  of  this  plant,  and  when  it  will  not  be 
likely  to  be  stunted  in  its  first  growth,  it  would  probably  be  bet- 
ter to  apply  the  ashes  later,  so  that  the  plant  may  derive  il  e 
greatest  assistance  from  this  manure,  while  the  ears  are  settlr-g 
and  forming.  Ashes  shotild  generally  be  used  for  top  drer:- 
sings ;  their  salts  lose  nothing  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  soon 
find  their  way  into  the  soil. 

Lime  is  much  used  in  Great  Britain,  and  other  northern  parts 
of  Europe,  where  the  summers  are  cool,  and  much  soil  that  may 
be  called  cold.  It  has  been  thought  best  to  apply  it  pure  t.>^ 
soils,  or  in  compost,  immediately  after  it  is  slacked.  In  stiff 
clays,  it  is  found  that  lime  would  be  peculiarly  useful  in  des- 
troying the  adhesive  quality  of  the  soil.  Some  limestone  is 
principally  combined  with  argillaceous,  and  some  with  silicious 
earths,  and  some  is  found  to  contain  a  large  portion  of  magne- 
sia. The  former  is  generally  known  by  its  hardness  and  smooth- 
ness of  surface  when  broken,  and  is  the  best  calculated  to  ben- 
efit a  clay  soil.  The  silicious  limestone  is  the  best  for  clay, 
and  is  most  soft  and  of  unequal  parts  when  broken.  That 
which  contains  much  magnesia  is  found  to  bo  destructive  U> 


4y 


AemCBLTKRAlr   ilSSATS. 


vegetation.  The  magnesia  limestone  is  (listing uLslied  tTow 
that  which  is  purely  calcareous,  by  the  slowness  of  its  solution 
m  acid,  which  is  so  considerable,  that  the  softest  kind  of  the 
Jbrmer  is  much  longer  in  dissolving  than  marble.* 

GrrsuM.     The  qualities  of  this  manure  are  so  well  under- 
stood by  our  farmers,  that  a  particular  explanation  of  them  may 
be  thought  unnecessary.      It  may  however,  be  interesting  to 
know  that  gypsum  is  found  in  the  earth,  in  four  different  states  : 
1,  in  the  pulverulent  and  friable  form,  which  constitutes  gyp- 
»ious  earth,  fossil  flour,  &c. ;  2,  in  solid  masses,  which  consti- 
tute plaster  stone  ;  3,  in  stalactites,  and  4,  in  determinate  crys- 
tals of  different  forms."      The  author  f  who  has  given  this  ac- 
eount  of  gypsum,  observes,  "that  on  3  hundred  parts  of  gypsum 
»ontain  thirty  of  sulphuric  acid,   thirty-two  of  pure  earth,    and 
thirty-eight  of  water.      It  is  subject  to  a  great  number  of  vari- 
eties of  color,  which  are  the  signs  of  various  qualities,  relative 
to  its  uses.     That  which  is  grey  is  less  valuable  than  the  white. 
The  several  states  of  the  oxides  of  iron,  with  which  it  abounds 
in  greater  or  less  quantities,   constitutes  its  rose  colored,  red 
and  black  varieties."      In  all  tight,  hard  and  dry  soils,  which 
are  not  too  near  the  ocean,  it  has  generally  been  found  to  be  a 
valuable  manure,  and  it  has  a  tendency  to  equalize  the  respec- 
tive value  of  the  soils,  by  enabling  the  farmer  to  render  those 
which  are  light  and  sterile,  almost  as  productive  as   those 
which  are  naturally  rich.      From  one  to  two  bushels  has  been 
found  sufficient  for  an  acre,  varying  the  quantity   according 
to    the    condition   of    the   soil         It     has     been     generally 
found   most  valuable   when  applied  to  red  clover,  as  it  great- 
ly increases  that  crop,  and  fits  tliq  soil  to  produce  others.     For 
corn,  planted  on  land  of  rather  a  light  and  dry  soil,  it  is  very  ef- 
ficacious: about  a  common  spoonful,  of  that  which  is  good,  is 
sufficient  for  a  hill.      It  has  been  found  more  or  less,  a  stimu- 
lant to  every  kind  of  plant,  except  wheat  and  rye  ;  on  those  it 
seems  to  have  no  very  sensible  effect,  but  will  often  cover  the 
ground  with  a  fine  sward  of  white  clover,  which  is  an  indica- 
tion that  it  has  enriched  the  soil  and  fitted  it  for  a  better  suc- 
ceeding crop  ;  for  it  is  well  known   that  a   rich   sward  will  al- 
ways atford  a  good  crop  of  wheat  or  rye.     If  then,  the  farmer 
would  reap  immediate  benefit  from  this  manure,  by  putting  it 
on  his  fallow  ground,  or  that  which  he  intends  for  winter  grain, 
he  should  apply  it  early  in  the  spring,  and  by  the  first  of^'June 
the  field  may  be  covered  with  a   fine  growth  of  white  clover; 
then  if  the  ground  be  broken  up,  and  the  sward  effectually  coy- 

*  See  Henry's  Chemistry.       t  Mr,  Chaptal. 


Nature  and  preparation  of  manure.  41 

6red,  it  has  been  found  to  yield  a  good  crop  of  wheat  or  rye, 
nearly  double  the  amount  which  might  be  expected  from  the 
field  without  the  gypsum. 

But  when  the  farmer  by  good  husbandry,  has  once  put  his 
farm  in  a  condition  to  produce  good  crops,  it  would  be  better 
economy  to  turn  his  attention  to  the  business  of  saving  the  ma- 
nure, that  might  be  furnished  from  the  various  substances  annu- 
ally produced,  especially,  when  he  has  to  transport  the  gypsum 
any  considerable  distance,  it  being  a  heavy  and  expensive  arti- 
cle to  move.  The  expence  of  manure,  as  well  as  every  other 
part  of  husbandry,  should  be  apportioned  to  the  profits  which 
are  to  be  expected  as  the  probable  result. 

Of  the  dung  of  domestic  animals,  most  used,  horse  dung  ig 
believed  to  be  the  worst,  and  that  of  sheep  and  swine  the  best 
If  the  former  be  suffered  to  he  long  in  a  heap,  it  will  be  great-- 
]y  mjured,  and  may  be  entirely  spoiled  by  its  own  heat,  whick 
is  to  be  known  by  its  white  mouldy  appearance  ;  and  therefore^ 
if  it  is  lying  in  a  large  heap,  should  be  applied  as  soon  as  fosii- 
ble,  for  spring  crops.  It  is  most  suitable  for  cold,  wet  and  stiff 
soils ;  as  is  that  also,  of  sheep  dung,  though  this  is  good  for  any 
soil.  Every  kind  of  barn  manure  is  much  injured  by  being  ex- 
posed to  rains,  and  therefore,  should  be  kept  as  much  under 
cover  as  is  practicable.  The  opinion  that  some  farmers  have 
entertamed,  that  a  wet  or  moist  yard  for  cattle  is  profitable,  be- 
cause in  it,  vegetable  substances  become  rotten,  or  decompos- 
ed more  rapidly  and  effectually,  is  very  erroneous,  and  should 
be  exploded. 

It  is  observed  by  Mr.  Davy,  in  his  agricultural  chemistrv. 
that  there  has  been  no  question  on  which  more  difference  of  o- 
pmion  has  existed,  than  that  of  the  state  in  which  manure 
ought  to  be  ploughed  into  the  land ;  whether  recent,  or  when 
It  has  gone  through  the  process  of  fermentation ;  and  this,  he 
observed,  was  a  subject  of  discussion,  so  late  as  1812.  Yet,  he 
IS  of  opmion,  that  the  knowledge  of  the  simplest  principles  of 
chemistry,  may  remove  all  doubt  on  this  subject.  For,  says  he, 
as  soon  as  dung  begins  to  decompose,  it  throAvs  off  its  volatile 
parts,  which  are  the  most  valuable  and  most  efficient.  Duno- 
which  has  fermented,  so  as  to  become  a  soft,  cohesive  mass! 
has  generally  lost  from  one  third  to  one  half,  of  its  most  useful 
constituent  elements.  It  evidently,  says  he,  should  be  applied 
as  soon  as  fermentation  begins,  that  it  may  exert  its  full  action 
upon  the  plant,  and  lose  none  of  its  nutritive  powers.  He  fur- 
ther remarks,  that  besides  the  dissipation  of  gasseous  matter, 
When  fermentation  is  pushed  to  the  extreme,  there  is  another 
disadvantage  m  the  loss  of  heat,  which  if  excited  in  the  soil,  is 
p  2 


4SS  AGRICULTURAL    E3SATS. 

useful  in  promoting  the  germination  of  the  seed,  and  in  assist- 
ing the  plant  in  the  first  stage  of  its  growth,  when  it  is  most 
feeble,  and  most  liable  to  disease  ;  and  the  fermentation  of  ma- 
nure in  the  soil,  must  be  particularly  favorable  to  the  wheat 
crop,  in  preserving  a  genial  temperature  beneath  the  surface 
late  in  autumn,  and  during  winter."  Again,  says  he,  it  is  a 
general  principle  in  chemistry,  that  in  all  cases  of  decomposi- 
tion, substances  combine  much  more  readily  at  the  moment  of 
their  disengagement,  than  after  they  have  been  perfectly  form- 
ed. And  in  fermentation  beneath  the  soil,  the  fluid  matter  pro- 
duced is  applied  instantly,  even  while  it  is  warm,  to  the  organs  of 
the  plant,  and  consequently,  is  more  likely  to  be  efficient,  than 
in  manure  that  has  gone  through  the  process  ;  and  of  which,  all 
the  principles  have  entered  into  new  combinations." 

It  would  seem  from  the  above  remarks  of  Mr.  Davy,  which 
are  probably  founded  on  correct  principles,  that  vegetable  sub- 
stances, proper  for  compost  manure,  would  prove  most  effica- 
eious,  by  being  buried  v/ith  the  seed,  before  they  had  become 
decomposed  by  fermentation.  But  as  such  substances,  during 
the  time  necessary  to  collect  tliem,  are  exposed,  many  of  them, 
to  the  alternations  of  drought  and  moisture,  before  the  proper" 
period  of  seed  time,the  expediency  of  collecting  them  together  in 
some  suitable  and  convenient  place  of  deposit,  where  they  may 
become  partially  decomposed,withoutbeing  injured  by  excessive 
fermentation,  is  very  obvious.  These,  and  other  considerations, 
have  induced  ma^ny  farmers,  both  in  England  and  America,  to 
appropriate  for  this  object,  a  small  piece  of  ground  with  boards 
or  stone,  as  circumstances  will  best  admit,  from  two  to  four  rods 
in  length,  and  five  or  six  feet  high;  the  extent  to  be  apportion- 
ed to  the  probable  quantity  of  substances,  intended  to  be  there- 
by secured ;  one  end  of  which  is  left  open,  or  so  that  it  may  be 
opened,  to  take  out  the  compost,  v/hen  ready  for  use.  This  to 
be  made  the  receptacle  in  T/hich  to  deposit  every  ingredient 
which  in  a  itate  of  decomposition,  may  be  useful  as  manure. 
In  the  spring  of  the  year,  whaterer  remains  in  the  barn-yard, 
of  any  kind  of  straw,  or  spoiled  hay,  or  any  substances  not  in  a 
proper  or  convenient  state  to  be  applied  as  a  manure,  to  be  de- 
posited in  this  receptacle,  which  should  generally  be  located 
adjoining  the  barn-yard.  This  to  be  considered  the  place  of 
deposit  for  all  the  scrapings  of  the  wood-yard,  cleanings  of  the 
cellar,  leached  ashes,  and  generally,  for  every  kind  of  dirt  or 
substance  capable  of  making  manure.*   When  this  by  practice, 

*  Among  the  refuse  matters  which  furnish  continual  re?ourres 
for  compost  manure,  may  be  enumerated  the  flesh  of  shambles 


NATURE    AND    PREPARATION    OP    MANURE.  43^ 

has  become  an  essential  measure,  it  will  be  found  that  much  litter, 
not  only  about  the  barn,  but  house,  will  be  converted  to  a  use- 
ful purpose ;  and,  even  if  no  other  object  was  thereby  promoted, 
it  would  greatly  contribute  to  that  neatness,  conducive  to 
health  and  comfort.  The  receptacle  where  composts  are  de- 
posited, should  be  covered,  so  that  no  more  water  can  pervade 
it  than  is  necessary  to  aid  in  the  process  of  its  decomposition.* 
For  if  it  be  permitted  to  be  kept  so  moist,  as  to  keep  up  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  fermentation  long  before  it  is  applied,  it 
will  thereby  throw  ofFa  great  portion  of  its  most  nutritive  ele- 
ments. To  render  it,  therefore,  most  efficacious,  it  should  be- 
come only  so  far  decomposed  and  rotten,  that  it  may  be  man- 
ageable with  a  shovel  and  dungfork,  for  carting  and  covering 
in  the  soil.  Dry  vegetable  substances,  of  ai^y  description, 
which  may  be  proper  for  manure,  when  they  are  permitted  to 
lie  scattered,  and  exposed  to  continual  alternations  of  drought 
and  moisture,  as  they  usually  are  over  the  large  team  yards  of 
many  of  our  farmers,  through  the  summer,  lose  by  that  means, 
as  well  as  by  excessive  fermentation,  a  great  part  of  their  fer- 
tilizing ingredients.  So,  also,  if  they  are  permitted  to  lie  in  a 
wet  yard,  where  they  will  be  leached  with  water,  the  farmer 
may  be  assured,  he  will  thereby  lose  a  great  share  of  the  bene- 
fits, which  he  might  otherwise  derive  from  them. 

It  is  easy  to  discover,  from  what  has  been  observed  above, 
that  dry,  and  other  vegetable  substances,  may  be  made  man- 
ageable as  manure,  and  deposited  in  the  soil,  so  that  the  pro- 
cess of  fermentation  may  be  made  to  progress  with  the  ger- 
mination of  the  plant  that  it  is  intended  to  nourish.  The  prac- 
tical farmer  may  be  apt  to  think  it  will  require  too  much 

and  other  anirual  substance!,  of  fish,  of  soap-boilers,  of  tallow- 
chandlers,  oi  rhoe-maker"*s  shops,  of  dye-houses,  of  printing  works, 
of  rag^5,  of  hair,  of  horns,  of  scrapings  of  oiled  leather,  of  sweepings 
of  cotton  and  wooden  mills,  work-shops,  ware-houses,  rubbish  of 
old  buildings,  &c.  &c.  Spent  tanner's  bark,  mixed  with  lime,  it 
ia  said,  will  make  a  valuable  manure. 

Night  Soil.  Decency  and  health  require  every  practicable 
means  to  be  used,  to  render  innoxious,  or  speedily  to  remove  all 
accumulations  of  this  kind  frotR  our  dwellings.  Yet  this  manure, 
which  is  esteemed  by  far  the  moit  efficacious  of  all  others,  is  com- 
monly lost.  If  fine  sifted  coal  ashes,  or  more  especially  fresh 
slacked  lime,  were  frequently  thrown  down  the  privies,  all  disa- 
greeable and  unwholesome  smells  would  be  prevented,  and  the 
quantity  and  value  of  the  compost  g^ieatly  increased.  By  this 
management,  its  removal  would  be  also  rendered  conveaient  and 
inoffensive  to  those  employed. 


44 


AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 


attention  to  use  those  means  which  may  be  necessary,  to  make 
such  an  exact  preparation  of  his  manure,  that  it  may  become 
decomposed  to  such  a  certain  degree  as  to  be  easily  managed 
With  the  shovel  or  dung-fork,  and  yet  be  able  to  commit  it  to 
the  soil  before  its  value  is  too  much  diminished  by  fermenta- 
tion. When,  however,  the  ingredients  are  collected  in  the 
manner  which  has  been  mentioned,  a  very  little  experience, 
with  the  exercise  of  his  discretion,  will  enable  him  so  to  man- 
age it,  that  It  may  become  decomposed  sufficiently  for  the  pur- 
poses of  manure,  without  heating  it  so  that  it  would  produce 
too  great  a  degree  of  fermentation.  If  the  depository  is  suffi- 
ciently large,  it  may  be  spread,  when  deposited,  so  as  not  to 
expose  It  to  any  great  degree  of  heat,  and  it  should  be  exposed 
to  no  more  moisture  than  to  decompose  it  so  that  it  may  be  cut 
and  managed  with  the  shovel.  The  English  farmers,  when 
they  provide  a  depository,  construct  the  roof,  or  cover  to  it,  so 
that  only  a  little  rain  will  drop  through ;  and  some  of  them  even 
provide  certain  places  on  the  roof,  where,  by  removing  a  board 
or  shingle,  they  can  let  in  water  at  their  discretion.  The 
sheds  which  are  usually  attached  to  barns,  may  be  so  situated 
that  the  horse-dung  may  be  throv/n  unJer  them,  and  then  some 
part  of  it  occasionally  spread  over  the  whole  mass  of  composts. 
This  will  prevent  too  great  a  degree  of  heat  in  the  horse-dung, 
and  at  the  same  time  help  to  improve  or  prepare  the  composts.* 
It  is  easy  to  conceive  tliat  the  farmer  who  cultivates  no 
more  land  than  enough  to  furnish  him,  with  his  industry,  a 
comfortable  support  for  his  family,  or  the  one  Mho  cultivates 
any  less  quantity  of  land,  and  needs  all  the  income  from  it  that 
It  can  be  made  to  produce,  may  lose  a  great  portion  of  his 

*  From  the  science,  derived  both  from  philosophical  principles 
and  practical  observations,  respectin?  the  apphcatimi  of  compost 
manure,  it  is  very  obvious,  the  diversity  of  opinion  refpecting  its 
application  arises  trom  errors  in  prartict-.  Thote  who  destroy  the 
efficacy  of  their  compost  manure,  by  exposif^  it  to  excessive  mois- 
ture, or  too  great  heat  by  A  rment'ation,  may  well  suppose  it  had 
belter  be  carried  fresh  to  the  field,  and  buried  with  the  seed  ; 
while  those  who  carry  it  fresh  to  :^e  field,  and  do  not  leave  it 
thoroughly  deposited  with  the  seed,  unexposed  to  the  sun  and 
wind  and  rain,  may  believe  it  would  be  n.ore  efficacious,  to  first 
decompose  it  so  that  it  may  thereby  be  re-^dered  more  practicable 
to  bury  it,  or  mix  it  with  the  soil.  Whatever  mode  the  farmer 
may  be  disposed  to  adopt,  he  should  recollect  that  the  excessive 
heat  necessary  to  reduce  it  to  a  fertilizing  state,  should  commence 
and  progress  with  the  gernaiDation  and  growth  0/  the  plant. 


NATURE    AND    PREPARATION    OF    MANURE.  45 

(ime  and  labor  in  tilling  it,  by  not  making  a  careful  an.!  judi- 
cious application  of  compost  manure,  which  may  be  entirely 
v.-ithin  his  power.  When  he  is  apprised  of  this,  and  has  adopt- 
ed the  principle,  that  it  is  necessary  and  proper  to  collect  and 
save  every  thing  that  is  suitable  to  make  this  kind  of  manure, 
he  will  find  the  quantity  immediately  hicreasing  bey£)nd  what 
he  had  conceived,  without  the  experiment;  and  which,  by  ap- 
plying it  while  it  still  retains  its  most  nutritious  elements,  will 
so  increase  the  efhcacy  of  his  labor,  as  richly  to  reward  him 
for  his  particular  attention  to  this  branch  of  agricultural  science. 

There  is  hardly  a  day  passes,  in  which  a  child  may  not  be 
taught  to  contribute  something,  by  its  industry,  to  the  quantity 
of  compost. 

There  are  certain  chemical  tests  by  v^^hich  the  progress  of 
fermentation  may  be  ascertained.  But  the  farmer  will  be 
more  likely  to  regard  some  general  principle,  which  may  aid 
Iiim  in  the  exercise  of  his  discretion,  to  decide  correctly  in  this 
matter.  If  he  finds  the  degree  of  heat,  either  in  the  com- 
mon dung-hill  or  heap  of  compost,  is  not  so  great  as  to  destroy 
itself,  and  terminate  in  a  degree  of  temperature  equal  to  that 
of  common  earth  at  the  same  distance  from  the  surface,  it  may 
be  continued  without  injury.  Any  moderate  degree  of  heat 
which  may  be  continued  until  the  manure  is  committed  to  the 
soil,  may  be  kept  up  without  materially  impairing  the  efficacy 
of  the  manure.  His  own  observation  may  therefore  aid  him 
to  a  correct  exercise  of  his  discretion.  Too  much  attention  to 
the  object  of  providing  compost  manure,  cannot  be  given  by 
the  farmer  who  would  increase  the  productive  powers  of  the 
soil  to  their  greatest  extent. 

What  has  been  remarked  above,  respecting  the  importance 
of  properly  securing  and  preparing  compost  manure,  is  not 
considered  inconsistent  with  the  practice  of  applying  vegetable 
substances,  such  as  straw,  dry  corn-stalks,  &:c.  as  manure, 
whenever  they  are  ready  at  seed  time,  in  sufficient  quantities ; 
but  the  farmer  will  see  from  what  has  been  observed,  that  such 
substances  must  be  efiectually  buried  with  seed,  if  he  would 
render  them  most  efficacious.  But  it  is  well  known  that  this 
is  seldom  if  e^er  effected  by  the  usual  process  of  jiloughing 
and  harrowing,  as  it  is  practiced  by  most  farmers.  The  coarse 
undecomposed  substances  spread  on  the  field,  are  not  all  buri- 
ed wii!)  the  plough,  many  of  those  that  are,  are  drawn  out 
again  by  the  drag  teeth,  and  left  exposed  to  the  alternations  of 
drought  and  rain,  to  evaporate  and  waste,  without  efficacy  to 
the  soil.  Some  few  farmers  in  our  country,  are  so  well  av/arc 
of  the  importance  of  effectually  covering  coarse  vegetable  sub- 


46  AGRICULTURAL  ESSAYS. 

stances  when  applied  as  manure,  especially  such  as  straw,  or 
the  remaining  stalks  of  Indian  corn,  that  they  cause  it  to  bo 
deposited  in  the  furrow  by  one  who  follows  the  plough,  in  such 
manner  that  it  is  entirely  covered  by  the  succeeding-  furrow, 
and  then  construct  the-  harrow  by  placing  an  additional  frame 
on  the  tpp,  so  that  the  teeth  are  prevented  from  running  so 
deep  as  to  disturb  the  manure  ;  and  it  is  believed  that  a  strict 
regard  to  economy  would  justify  such  a  measure,  unless  other 
means  equally  operative  can  effect  the  object.  The  pioper 
application,  as  well  as  the  providing  a  supply  of  nutritious 
aliment  for  the  plant,  are  equally  essential  in  a  good  system  of 
husbandry. 

The  great  mass  of  our  practical  farmers  are  not  learned  in 
chemical  science,  and  generally  attend  more  to  the  most  prac- 
ticable and  convenient  modes  of  applying  manure,  than  to  what 
may  prove  to  be  the  most  efficacious  results  of  their  particular 
modes  of  applying  it.  Although  many  of  them  are  easily  made 
to  believe  that  compost  manure  cannot  be  expected  to  afford 
food  for  plants,  until  it  is  covered  in  the  earth,  and  goes  into  a 
state  of  entire  decomposition,  and  the  nutritive  qualities  dis- 
solved, or  converted  into  a  liquid  state ;  yet,  notwithstanding, 
they  are  in  the  practice  of  carrying  it  into  the  field  in  its  un- 
decomposed  state,  and  after  the  process  of  ploughing  and  har- 
rowing is  finished,  to  leave  a  large  portion  of  it  uncovered, 
and  the  rest  of  it  not  located  in  a  manner  from  which  they  can 
have  reason  to  expect  any  immediate  benefit.  After  the  pro- 
cess of  seeding  is  finished,  the  strawy,  or  other  coarse  fibrous 
substances,  are  often  to  be  seen  scattered  on  the  surface,  which 
are  either  pulled  out  of  the  ground  with  the  harrow,  or  which 
have  never  been  covered  with  the  plough.  While  persisting 
in  this  erroneous  practice,  derived  from  tradition,  they  seem  to 
indulge  in  the  hope  that  if  they  once  spread  upon  the  land, 
straw  half  rotted,  or  other  similar  ingredients  of  manure,  it 
will  somehow  get  mixed  with  the  soil,  and  become  efficacious 
for  some  future  crop,  if  not  for  the  present  season. 

There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the  location  of 
manure,  whether  it  should  be  above  or  below  the  seed.  It  is 
very  certain  that  it  must  be  placed  near  the  space  which  the 
root  will  probably  occupy.  What  that  distance  should  be  to 
render  it  most  efficacious  to  different  plants,  must  be  determin- 
ed by  observation  and  experience.  Tap  rooted  plants,  like  the 
carrot,  parsnip,  beet,  &lc.  which  extend  downward  as  they  pro- 
gress to  maturity,  require  the  ground  to  be  mellowed,  and  tho 
manure  buried  deeper,  than  roots  which  are  bulbous,  as  the 
potato,    onion,  turnip,  &c.    or  than  wheat,  barley,  oats,  &c. 


THE  BREAKING  UP  OLD  GRASS.  47 

%vhich  have  fibrous  roots,  which  extend  horizontally  in  every 
direction. 

The  efficacy  of  ploughing  in  green  crops,  has  been  particu- 
larly noticed  in  the  essay  on  wheat  culture,  &c.  But  as  it  is  a 
most  important  me  cus  of  fertili.  ing  the  soil,  from  the  fermenta- 
tion gradually  converting  the  vegetable  substances  into  the 
food  of  plants,  it  should  be  here  remarked,  that  in  those  cases 
where  they  do  not  prove  efficacious,  it  must  necessarily  be 
from  some  circumstances  of  bad  management  or  inattention, 
which  counteract  the  obvious  tendency  of  the  substances  to 
that  conversion,  which  is  necessary  to  enable  them  to  act. 
Every  vegetable  particle  under  the  surface,  dissolves  and  yields 
gasses,  which  may  be  either  taken  up  by  the  roots  of  plants, 
or  carried  away  by  the  atmospheie  ;  but  crops  may  be  so  im- 
perfectly buried  as  to  convey  those  gasses  into  the  air,  instead 
of  retaining  them  in  the  soil.  If  this  operation  be  not  strictly 
attended  to,  failures  may  be  expected.  The  best  way  of  pro- 
ceeding is  to  roll  down  the  crops  Vvith  a  barley  roller,  and  to 
add  a  skim  coulter  to  the  plough,  going  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  roller,  to  plough  six  inches  deep,  and  to  have  no  other 
successive  tillage  than  shallow  on  the  surface.  The  effect  of 
the  operation,  like  many  others,  will  depend  on  the  execution. 


Improvement  of  Land  et  Breaking  up  Old  Grass 
WITH  THE  Plough. 

The  f*ll«wing  remarks  fr«m  the  agricultural  Encyclopedia, 
appear  to  have  been  the  result  of  observations,  founded  on  the 
experience  of  tlie  best  English  farmers. 

The  author  of  these  essays  has  thought  proper  to  abridge 
them,  and  occasionally  adopt  his  own  language,  so  as  to  ren- 
der it  more  intelligible,  and  more  applicable  to  the  condition  of 
the  American  farmers. 

By  old  grass  is  meant  that  which  has  remained  a  great  num- 
ber of  years  without  being  turned  up  by  the  plough.  Although 
few  branches  of  husbandry  afford  room  for  more  successful 
cultivation  than  the  breaking  up  of  old  grass,  yet  it  generally 
happens  that  those  so  engaged  seldom  gain  much  profit  to 
themselves,  or  convey  any  benefit  to  the  land  unaer  their  man- 


48  AGRICULTURAL      ESSAYS. 

agement ;  and  it  is  probable  that  to  the  imperfect  mode  of"  cul- 
ture often  practised  when  the  plough  was  introduced  into  old 
grass  land,  may  be  attributed  this  failure,  and  the  strong  antip- 
athy which  influences  the  majority  of  proprietors  against  ren- 
ovating them  by  tillage.  It  is,  indeed,  well  known,  that  many 
fields  of  such  land  have  been  considerably  injured,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  plough  being  used,  which  was  entirely  owing  to 
the  omission  of  the  most  proper  mode  of  destroying  the  abori- 
ginal inhabitants. 

Ploughing  the  land  at  proper  intervals,  will  never  reduce  the 
natural  value  of  any  land,  provided  the  management  in  the  in- 
terim is  well  executed. 

Land,  which  has  laid  a  considerable  time  in  grass,  is  in  every 
situation  brought  with  difficulty  into  a  proper  arable  state ;  be- 
cause the  roots  of  the  natural  grasses  retain  such  a  hold  of  the 
soil,  that  artificial  plants  cannot  either  thrive  or  prove  produc- 
tive, till  the  former  are  completely  eradicated,  or  destroyed. 
This  difficulty  prevails  in  different  degrees,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil  cultivated  ;  for  upon  soils  of  a  light,  or  mel- 
low nature,  grass  roots  may  be  destroyed  with  greater  facility, 
and  corn  crops  gained,  for  a  series  of  years,  at  much  less  ex- 
pense than  is  practicable  upon  soils  that  are  composed  of  clay, 
and  which  are  situated  on  a  bottom  which  is  retentive  of  mois- 
ture. But  though  corn  crops  may,  in  the  first  instance,  be 
easier  cultivated,  upon  some  soils  than  upon  others,  yet  no 
soil  whatever  can  be  successfully  restored  to  grass  in  a  suita- 
ble manner,  without  being  completely  summer  fallowed,  or 
sufficiently  cleaned  by  a  fellow  crop,  according  to  its  nature 
and  other  circumstances.  It  is  from  neglecting  these  radical 
operations,  tliot  the  conversion  of  grass  land  to  tillage  so  often 
proves  injurious  to  the  occupiers. 

No  kind  of  soil  requires  to  be  oftener  renovated  by  the 
plough  than  clay,  especially  if  it  be  of  a  thin  nature.  The 
"best  grass  is  always  obtained  in  the  first  year  after  being  sown 
down,  while  the  roots  are  creeping  upon  the  surface,  and  not 
obstructed  by  the  poverty  or  sterility  of  the  subsoil.  Rich 
clays  will  progressively  improve  while  kept  in  grass,  though  in 
an  inferior  degree  to  those  soils  of  a  drier  and  less  obstinate 
nature.  Hence  the  great  propriety  of  exercising  alternate 
husbandry  upon  clayey  soils  ;  in  other  words,  of  breaking  them 
frequently  up  with  the  plough,  and  restoring  them  again  to 
grass,  after  being  cropped  for  five  or  six  years.  When  grass 
land  of  a  clayey  soil  is  converted  to  tillage,  it  has  been  said 
the  first  crop  in  every  case  ought  to  be  oats  ;  the  reason  as- 
signed, is,  that  there,  is  no  other  grain  that  forages  so  well,  and 


THE    BREAKING    HP   •Ii»    «FRA9i.  4^ 

oonsequently  makes  a  greater  return  of  produce  at  the  outset, 
when  the  surface  is  obstinate,  and  the  natural  gr^see  unsub- 

To'  procure  a  full  crop,  both  good  ploughing  and  plentiful 
harrowing  are  necessary.  The  plough  should  go  deep,  and 
lay  the  furrow  w^ell  over.  .    . 

It  should  be  harrowed  length  ways,  till  the  surface  is  m 
some  measure  broken,  when  cross  harrowing  may  be  resorted 
to.  Old  grass  lands  have  sometimes  required  eight  or  nine 
double  lines  of  harrows,  before  it  would  be  considered  as  in 
any  thing  like  a  finished  state.  The  most  advantageous  prac- 
tice is,  to'^summer  fallow  all  such  lands  in  the  second  year;  and 
this  practice  is  decisively  recommended  as  being  most  condu- 
cive to  the  interest  of  the  occupier.  Repeated  trials  confirm 
the  fact  that  heavy  land  cannot  be  brought  into  a  good  cultiva- 
ble state  without  this  radical  measure  is  resorted  to. 

The  grub-worm  is  often  a  dangerous  foe  to  corn  crops,  on 
clayey  soils  newly  broken  up  from  grass,  especially  m  the  sec- 
ond and  third  year,  and  indeed  during  every  subsequent  year, 
till  the  land  is  fallowed ;  and  no  other  effectual  method  of  ex- 
tirpating this  mischievous  insect  is  so  well  known  as  that  of  re- 
peatedly ploughing  the  ground  in  the  summer  months,  or  pair- 
ing and  burning  the  surface.  Another  circumstance,  which 
renders  an  early  fallow  highly  necessary,  is,  the  quantity  of 
thistles  and  other  rubbish  usually  infesting  grass  land,  which, 
if  allowed  to  remain  undestroyed,  will  effectually  prevent  artifi- 
cial crops  from  thriving.* 

A  dressing  with  lime  will  also  be  highly  beneficial,  as  all  old 
grass  land,  when  first  ploughed,  is  much  improved  by  calcare- 
ous matter.  If  the  ploughing  is  effectually  done,  so  as  to  place 
the  grass  and  other  vegetable  substances  accumulated  m  for- 
mer years,  in  a  proper  state  for  their  entire  decomposition,  it 
will  be  sufficient,  without  dung,  for  carrying  on  the  growth  of 

*  This  measure  is  not  in  conformity  to  the  principle  of  a  rotatioa. 
of  crops,  as  recommended  in  other  essays  contained  in  this  work. 
Why  is  it  not  better  to  plough  such  lands  in  the  preceding  autumn, 
and  expose  them  to  the  winter  frosts  ?  And  a  crop  of  corn  and  po- 
tatoes, or  even  beans  and  peas,  would  more  effectually  clear  such 
lands  of  weeds,  than  a  summer  fallow,  as  it  is  usually  executed. 
The  method  of  brfeaking;  up  old  grass  land  much  oftener  than  hat 
been  practiced  heretofore,  in  this  country,  is,  undoubtedly,  one  of 
the  most  valuable  modern  improvements  in  agriculture ;  but  sa  jb 
that  of  substituting  a  summer  crop  for  a  summer  fallow. 


50  ■        AtfRItULTU^AL  ESSAYS. 

plants  fot  a  considerable  lime.  This,  however,  will  depend  on 
the  natural  strength  of  the  soil. 

Many  of  the  American  farmers,  who  believe  the  raising  of 
stock  more  profitable  than  grain,  often  err  in  supposing  that 
more  stock  can  be  supported  by  letting  their  old  grass  land  re- 
main for  pasture,  than  by  converting  it  to  tillage  ;  and  to  intro- 
duce the  system  of  alternate  husbandry,  no  doubt  more  capital 
is  required,  besides  a  good  deal  of  trouble  in  its  execution,  but 
these  are  indispensable  requisites  in  every  improved  system. 

As  the  result  of  great  experience,  the  English  farmers  have 
found,  that  alternate  husbandry  is  most  beneficial  to  cultivators, 
and  to  the  public ;  that  a  farm  managed  according  to  its  rules, 
will  yield  a  greater  quantity  of  pioduce,  than  if  any  other  sys- 
tem is  adopted;  that  if  one  half  of  the  farm  is  kept  under  arti- 
ficial grasses,  and  other  green  crops,  as  much  live  stock  may  be 
supported  and  fattened  upon  the  produce,  as  if  the  whole  farm 
was  kept  in  old  pasture  :  and  that  the  other  half,  from  the  large 
quantity  of  dung  produced  from  the  consumption  of  green 
crops,  will  furnish  as  much  disposable  produce  for  supplyino- 
the  market,  as  if  the  whole  farm  had  been  kept  in  a  regu* 
lar  sequence  of  corn  crops. 

When  a  soil  contains  a  great  quantity  of  small  lose  stones, 
and  the  surface  been  made  smooth  for  mowing,  and  it  has  been 
long  appropriated  to  the  use  of  meadow,  the  breaking  it  up  with 
the  plough  is  a  more  troublesome  and  expensive  operation  ;  but 
even  under  such  circumstances,  it  is  believed  great  advantao-es 
would  generally  be  derived  by  breaking  up  such  meadows,  and 
if  the  soil  is  sufliciently  dry,  or  can  be  made  so  by  any  tolerable 
expense  of  draining,  to  convert  them  to  tillage  by  a  rotation  of 
grain  crops,*  giving  it  occasional  supplies  of  manure  when  it 
can  be  had,  until  the  roots  are  entirely  decomposed,  so  as  to  be- 
come a  constituent  of  the  soil. 

By  this  means  the  soil  becomes  fertilized,  by  exposure  to  the 
salutary  influence  of  the  solar  rays,  and  by  reducing  to  compost 
manure  the  whole  mass  of  vegetable  substances  formed  by  the 
roots  of  grass  and  weeds. 

It  is  well  known  that  many  of  our  farmers,  especially  those 

*  Grain,  in  its  most  extensive  sense,  may  be  descriptive  of  seeds 
of  any  fruit,  though  by  common  acceptation,  it  is  understood  to  de- 
scribe such  as  are  used  for  bread.  But  when  we  consider  it  as  a 
necessary  article  in  the  rotation  of  crops,  it  may  be  extended  to 
signify  not  only  Indian  corn  and  the  culmiferous  crops,  such  as 
bear  seed  in  a  chaffy  head,  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  &c.  but  also  Ic- 
juramoua  crops,  as  peas  and  beans. 


rLOUGHFNG  AND  HARROWING.  51 

who  cultivate  but  a  few  acres,  say  from  ten  to  fifty,  contentthem^ 
selves  to  partake  the  small  pittance  of  grass  which  is  the  pro- 
duce of  a  feeble  growth,  from  roots  which  have  been  undis- 
turbed, without  culture  and  almost  destitute  of  nourishment, 
for  a  great  number  of  years.  Some  justify  this  practice  from 
the  uncertainty  of  getting  it  so  well  stocked  again  with 
grass,  as  well  as  from  their  incapacity  to  defray  the  ex- 
pense of  introducing  the  necessary  operations  of  the  success- 
ful tillage  of  such  land.  And  this  latter  objection  may,  under 
certain  circumstances,  be  insuperable.  But  certain  it  is  that 
those  who  have  both  disposition  and  capacity  to  overcome  every 
objection  to  the  breaking  up  of  their  old  grass,  and  have  judi- 
ciously and  thoroughly  introduced  grain  crops  in  a  proper 
course  of  alternate  husbandry,  have  generally  been  amply  com- 
pensated for  all  their  extra  expense  and  trouble,  which  this 
mode  of  culture  requires. 

I  am  aware  that  the  argument  in  favor  of  often  converting 
«ld  grass  to  tillage,  does  not  apply  here  with  the  same  force 
that  it  does  in  Great  Britain ;  as  laborers  are  more  scarce  here, 
the  price  of  labor  higher,  and  much  less  is  requisite  to  manage 
OUT  grass  crops.  But  that  we  may  duly  appreciate  the  system 
of^alternale  husbandry  here,  we  should  consider  that  by  a  judi- 
cious management  of  it,  the  same  quantity  of  labor  may  not  on- 
ly greatly  increase  the  quantity  of  grain,  while  it  will  also  pro- 
vide us  with  at  least  as  much  grass,  and  thereby  instead  of  di- 
minishing, might  greatly  increase  the  quantity  of  animal  food. 


Improvement  of  Lands  by  PLOUGHiNe  anb  Harrowing. 

There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion  ancnong  farmers  in 
America,  heretofore,  relative  to  the  depth  of  the  furrow  most 
likely  to  improve  the  soil,  and  thereby  enhance  the  crop.  But 
this  diversity  must  always  have  been  owing  to  the  want  of  cor- 
rect knowledge  respecting  the  nature  and  properties  of  the' 
different  soils. 

It  is  very  certain  that  the  depth  of  the  furrow  in  ploughing 
should  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  of  the  sub-soil.  It 
is  said  by  a  celebrated  ,. chemist,  that  in  rich  clayey  soils,  tji? 
furrow  can  scarcely  be  too  deep;  ajid  in  sands,  unless  the  gub- 


a*i  A6RltlLT%RAL    ESSAYS. 

Boil  contains  J5Pme  principle  noxious  to  vegetables,  the  asitoie 
practice  should  be  adopted. 

When  the  roots  are  deep  they  are  less  liable  to  be  injured 
by  rain  or  drought;  that  as  the  layers  shoot  forth  their  radi- 
eles  into  every  part  of  the  soil,  the  space  from  which  the  nour- 
ishment is  derived  is  more  considerable  than  when  the  seed  is 
euperficiaJly  inserted  in  the  soil.  But  in  a  fertile  shallow 
«oil,  situated  upon  cold  clay  or  sandy  sub-soil,  deep  ploughing 
may  be  very  prejudicial. 

It  is  of  consequence  to  attend  to  the  season  proper  for  plough- 
ing clayey  soils.  If  it  be  too  dry  it  will  not  crumble,  as  it  should 
do  to  prepare  it  for  a  crop ;  and  if  too  wet,the  ploughing  will  only 
render  it  more  compact.  The  hard  clods  are  easily  mellowed 
with  a  plough  after  they  have  been  merely  wet  through  with  a 
gentle  rain. 

The  ploughing  of  land  in  the  best  manner  for  the  culture  of 
particular  plants,  is  of  great  importance  in  the  improvement  of 
Hbe  soil. 

Some  remarks  have  been  made  in  the  Essay  on  the  culture 
of  wheat,  relative  to  the  practice  of  summer  fallowing  in  pre- 
paring the  soil  for  that  crop  ;  by  which  it  appears  that  the  fallow 
'Ijloughing  would,  if  performed  in  the  month  of  November  in 
the  preceding  year,  or  just  before  the  commencement  of  winter 
frosts,  not  omy  be  better  for  crops  of  wheat,  but  better  contri- 
bute to  the  durable  unproveraent  of  the  soil. 

It  has  been  found  by  various  experimeiila  that  summer  fal- 
lowing at  the  usual  season  in  June,  is  never  useful,  unless  it  is 
repeated  so  often  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  grass  and  weeds, 
and  too  keep  up  a  fermentation  in  the  soil.  That  although  a 
▼ery  rich  soil  may  require  ahttle  more  tlian  to  be  sufficiently 
mellowed  for  the  reception  of  the  seed ;  but  that  all  others 
which  are  naturally  more  or  less  sterile,  or  have  been  exhaust- 
ed by  too  frequent  cropping,  may  be  greatly  recruited  by  fre- 
quent ploughing  and  harrowing. 

A  Mr.  Quell,  a  practical  and  intelligent  farmer  of  Great  Bri- 
tain, from  a  course  of  experiments  and  observations,  formed  an 
opinion  that  laAds  can  be  made  and  kept  rich  by  the  mere  use 
of  the  plough  and  the  harrow.  Various  experiments  have  been 
made  to  ascertain  the  degrees  of  efficacy  to  be  derived  from 
repeated  ploughing,  and  the  result  has  been  found,  that  the 
crop  has  been  increased,  other  circumstances  being  equal,  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  times  the  ploughing  has  been  so 
repeated.  More  especially  is  frequent  ploughing  necessary  in 
tiie  clayey  and  stiff  or  hard  soils;  as  it  wUl  not  only  better 


|»fepare  the  ground  for  a  single  crop,  but  will  thereby  greatly 
iniprovc^the  soil. 

When  your  sward  land  is  intended  fof  spring  crops,  it  should 
always  when  circumstances  will  admit,  be  broken  up  early  in 
the  fall  preceding,  and  if  it  is  a  very  moist  soil,  should  be 
thrown  up  into  ridges  by  repeated  ploughing,  that  it  mtty  be 
fertilized  by  being  exposed  to  the  winter  frosts. 

In  fact  it  is  well  ascertained  by  experiment  that  the  sediment 
or  settlings  of  dew  water  are  greater  in  quantity,  blacker 
and  richer,  than  those  of  rain  water ;  hence  the  utility  of 
ploughing  w^hen  the  dew  is  on  is  obvious,  as  it  tends  to  fertil- 
ize the  soil. 

The  farmer  cannot,  it  will  be  said,  always  wait  to  have  hie 
lands  ploughed  while  the  dew  is  on,  and  neither  can  he  always 
appropriate  as  much  of  his  labor  to  repeated  ploughings,  as  the 
benefit  of  his  crops  may  require  ;  but  when  he  comes  to  duly 
appreciate  this  measure,  he  will  find  himself  well  compensated 
for  so  arranging  his  business  as  to  devote  much  more  of  tis 
time  to  this  subject,  than  has  usually  been  practiced  by  the  A= 
merican  husbandman. 

The  repeated  and  thorough  ploughings,  as  well  as  maiiy 
other  practices  necessary  to  enhance  the  productive  powers  of 
the  soil,  if  properly  attended  to,  will  leave  to  the  practical  agri- 
culturalist but  a  very  little  leisure.  The  more  science  he  obtains 
relating  to  his  occupation,  if  he  would  properly  improve  it,  the 
less  time  he  will  find  to  devote  to  idleness  or  dissipation. 

Since  writing  the  above  the  following  instances  of  the  utility 
of  frequent  ploughing  has  come  to  my  knowledge,  which  is 
worthy  of  notice.  A  farmer  in  Connecticut  owned  a  certain 
piece  of  very  light  sandy  soil,  such  as  generally  constitutes 
the  plain  land  which  produces  a  natural  growth  of  pine  tim- 
ber. About  two  acres  of  this  soil  which  had  been  cleared,  lay 
a  great  number  of  years  in  a  barren  state  without  producing 
any  useful  vegetable.  He  ploughed  it  eight  times  successive- 
ly during  the  summer  months;  some  part  of  the  ploughing  he 
performed  in  the  morning  when  the  dew  was  on.  At  the 
usual  season  he  sowed  it  with  winter  wheat,  without  applying 
any  kind  of  manure  ;  and  the  next  summer  it  produced  a  very 
valuable  crop.  The  barrenness  of  this  kind  of  soil  and  its  usual 
properties  are  well  understood  by  farmers  throughout  the  U- 
nited  States.  It  is  impossible  therefore  to  account  for  the  in- 
crease of  its  fertility,  on  any  other  principle  whatever,  but  thai 
of  the  repeated  ploughings. 

It  is  believed  that  ploughing  any  soil  juet  previovw  to  tlic 
*  2 


i54  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS, 

commenceraent  of  the  winter  frosts,  next  previous  to  the  seat- 
son  when  it  is  to  be  seeded  for  a  crop,  has  a  great  tendency  to 
fertilize  the  soil. 

The  following  experiment  is  a  confirmation  of  this  fact.  A 
farmer  in  New-Jersey  some  years  since,  trench  pleughed  an 
exhausted  field  of  stiff  soil  in  the  fall ;  cross  ploughed  apart  of 
it,  and  in  that  part  broke  the  lumps  to  pieces.  In  the  spring 
the  field  was  all  ploughed  equally  and  sown  with  barley  and 
•lover.  The  part  on  which  the  most  labor  had  been  bestowed 
v/as  in  fine  order  when  sown,  and  yielded  about  thirty  bushel*- 
an  acre  of  barley;  the  other  part  was  still  in  lumps,  the  frost 
Dot  having  been  found  sufficient  to  mellow  them  entirely,  and 
the  product  of  barley  was  only  about  twenty  bushels  an  acre. 
The  same  difference  was  a-fterwards  observed  in  the  clover. 

But  this  field  with  this  stratum  of  crude  earth  thrown  uper- 
most,  it  is  e-^ident  would  have  yielded  little  or  nothing  the  next 
•pring,  and  until  mellowed  and  fertiUzed  by  summer  suns,  had 
it  not  been  mellowed  and  fertilized   by  winter  frosts.* 

To  improve  land  by  ploughing,  or  to  plough  it  so  as  effectu- 
ally to  ansv.'er  the  necessary  purposes  of  tillage, — it  is  essen- 
tial tliat  the  plough  should  be  constructe<i  and  so  managed  when 
in  operation,  as  to  cut  aU  the  land  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow 
clean,  and  nu-t  only  so  but  to  turn  it  flat  over,  especially  if  there 
is  any  vegetable  living  en  the  surface,  to  be  destroyed.  By 
.#nly  loosening  the  soil,  v/ithout  cutting  the  bottom  of  the  fur- 
jow  clean,  the  purposes  of  ploughing  are  in  part  defeated. 

It  is  a  fundamental  principle  in  tillage  that  the  soil  must  be 
pulverized,  and  the  seed  so  distributed,  that  the  food  necessary 
to  its  growth  may  be  made  to  contribute  equally  to  the  nour- 
ishment of  every  grain  sown  or  planted.  If  this  is  true,  the 
more  perfectly  this  operation  is  performed  by  ploughing,  the 
greater  crop  may  be  expected.  If  parts  of  the  soil  which  th« 
roots  of  the  plant  would  penetrate,  are  left  in  a  hard  state  un- 
loosened by  the  plough  at  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  the  growth 
•f  the  plant  will  be  mereby  retarded  tnd  its  produce  lessened. 
Or  if  the  stiff  clods  of  earth  are  left  unbroken  after  the  process 
•f  harrowing  is  finished,  the  space  whict  they  occupy  is  thereby 
lendered  less  productive  ;  the  seed  it  is  true  may  force  its  plant 
\o  emerge  from  under  the  clod,  but  the  stock  of  the  plant  in  that 
ease  is  forced  to  occupy  the  space  which,  if  the  seed  is  equally 
distributed,  as  it  should  be,  is  barely  sufficient  for  the  growth 
of  the  plants  which  would  otherwise  be  its  sole  occupants  ;  the 
jCpnsequence  ii,  that  the  plants  around  the  clod,  by  being  too 

*  Bee  Fwmer*»  Assistant,  page  68. 


PLOUGHING    ANl)    HARROWING.  53 

much  crowded  and  retarded  in  their  growth,  are  rendered 
thereby  less  productive  ;  while  the  space  occupied  by  the  hard 
unbroken  clods  is  rendered  less  conducive  to  the  success  of  the 
crop.  The  savings  made  by  a  proper  use  of  the  plough  and 
the  harrow,  and  the  roller  too,  when  necessary,  are  no  incon- 
siderable items  in  the  aggregate  profits  of  the  farmer;  if  there 
is  a  little  negligence  and  unskilful  management  in  every  part 
of  the  tillage  process,  it  cannot  be  expected  that  the  soil  will 
yield  an  adequate  compensation  for  the  labors  thus  bestowed. 
It  was  probably  the  importance  of  a  perfect  pulverization  of  the 
soil,  that  might  have  led  to  the  invention  of  the  roller,  which 
ie  often  necessary  to  effect  that  operation,  especially  in  very 
clayey  or  stiff  soils.  But  on  ordinary  loose  soils,  the  proper  use 
of  the  plough  and  the  harrow  may  effect  the  object.  By  a. 
proper  knowledge  of  the  food  of  vegetables,  and  the  manner  in 
which  it  is  communicated  to  the  plant,  the  farmer  will  derive 
additional  evidence  of  the  necessity  of  tlic  entire  separation  of 
the  particles  which  compose  the  soil,  by  the  tillage  process  j 
whence  it  will  appear  that  no  proper  nourishment  of  the  plant 
which  may  be  contained  in  unbroken  clumps  or  clods  of  the 
soil,  can  contribute  to  its  growth  until  they  become  pulverized.* 

The  want  of  sufficient  animal  strength  to  plough  the  ground 
of  a  suitable  depth  for  the  effectual  pulverization  of  the  soil, 
may  be  considered  an  insuperable  objection  to  many  well  in- 
formed farmers.  To  remove  this  objection  and  introduce  aa 
improvement  in  the  economy  of  teams  generally,  a  celebrated 
agriculturalistjf  suggested  the  following  practice,  the  efficacy 
of  which  he  has  attested  by  actual  experiment.  To  first  plough 
the  ground  only  half  the  depth  required  ;  that  the  resistance  of 
the  soil  may  by  that  means  be  overcome  by  the  application  of 
one  half  of  the  animal  strength ;  and  by  repeating  the  opera- 
tion the  same  depth  of  ploughing  will  be  attained  by  only  one 
half  of  the  animal  exertion,  which  wonldbe  required,  to  plough 
the  same  depth  with  double  the  exertion  at  one  operation,  the 
resistance  of  the  loose  soil  occasioned  by  the  first  furrow,  be- 
ing too  small  to  be  taken  into  the  computation. 

It  may  be  worthy  of  consideration,  whether  even  those  who 
have  the  command  of  sufficient  strength  of  team  for  any  pur- 
poses of  tillage,  may  nol  pulverise  some  soils  more  effectually 
and  more  economicaUy,  by  taking  two  or  more  furrows  instead 

*  See  essay  on  food  of  veg^etables  and  the  mafiner  in  which  it  ia 
communicated  to  the  plant. 

t  Major  General  Alexander  Bealson,  honorary  mettbcF  of  the 
Engliaij  board  of  Agriculture* 


56  AOAfCtJLTURAL  ESSAtS. 

of  one,  to  loosen  the  soil  to  a  proper  depth  for  g^dod  cultivation. 

The  celebrated  Q,uell  was  of  opinion,  that  land  can  never  be 
made  too  fine  by  tillage ;  and  that  the  finer  it  is  made  the  rich* 
er  it  will  become.  He  observed  that  the  fine  parts  of  the  earth 
are  impregnated  with  some  of  the  riches  carried  in  by  the  dews : 
but  the  larger  rough  parts  cannot  have  that  benefit ;  the  dews 
not  penetrating  to  their  centres,  they  remain  poorer. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  a  perfect  pulverization  of  th^ 
soil  places  it  in  a  better  condition  to  let  in  the  atmospheric  air 
amongst  the  minute  particles,  and  for  permitting  the  rain  and 
dew  to  spread  equally,  and  for  giving  to  the  roots  the  faculty 
of  entering  into  all  the  cavities* 


fvOTATlON     OF     CroPS     AS     A     SuBSTITtTTE     FOR      SlfMlVfEH 

Fallow. 

In  treating  of  fallows,  there  appears  to  be  some  difficulty  in 
comprehendmg  the  real  views  of  diflferent  writers,  probably  on 
account  of  the  diflferent  import  with  which  the  term  fallow  has 
been  understood  in  different  countries,  •nd  at  different  periods 
of  agricultural  history  ;  even  the  expositors  of  the  Americart 
language  are  not  very  explicit  in  their  difmitions  Cf  the  term. 
It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  farmers  of  New-Ertgland  have 
generally  applied  the  term  fallow  to  the  ploughing  of  land 
which  has  lain  at  rest  in  grass,  or  which  has  rested  after  a  pre- 
vious crop  the  preceding  year  without  being  stocked  with  grass- 
iseed  or  ploughed.  And  when  it  is  ploughed  early,  or  in  any  of  the 
suittraer  months,  for  the  purpose  of  ploughing  it  again,and  thereby 
preparing  it  for  an  autumual  seeding  with  wheat  or  other  winter 
crop,  it  is  termed  fallowing,  or  fallow  ploughing.  With  these 
views,  which  the  farmers  of  our  country  have  had  of  fallowiiiyg;, 
of  land,  and  of  fallow  land,  it  will  be  easy  to  understand  what  ia 
intended  by  substituting  the  rotation  of  crops,  for  the  summer 
fallow,  as  an  improvement  in  the  system  of  agricultuie. 

'^The  substance  of  the  arguments  generally  used  against 
fallow,  may  be  comprised  under  four  keads : 

1st.  Nature  d«es  not  require  any  pause,  or  rest ;  and  the 
earth  was  evidently  designed  to  yield  a  regular  uninterrupted 
produce. 


ROTATION    OF    CROPS. 


^7 


odly  As  the  productive  quality  of  the  earth  never  ceases,  if 
corn  is  not  sown,  weeds  will  be  produced :  therefore  it  is  our 
business  to  expel  the  unproductive  plant,  and  to  introduce  oth- 
ers that  are  beneficial.  .     .J-     1  c.  ■ 

3dly.  That  the  idea  of  leaving  land  to  rest,  is  ridiculous  ;  tor 
by  keeping  it  clean,  and  by  a  judicious  intermixture  of  crops,  it 
may  be  managed  like  a  garden,  and  sown  from  one  generation 
to  another.  ^     ^      ^       ^  .^ .         ,,  .       ,    ^ 

4thly.  That  the  fallows  in  England  exhibit  nothing  but  a 
conflict  between  the  farmer  and  his  weeds,  in  which  the  jattex 
generally  prevail ;  for  at  best  they  are  but  half  stifled,  and  nev^ 
cr  effectually  killed." 

Notwithstanding  these  arguments,  which  ought  to  have  great 
consideration  in  deciding  with  respect  to  the  expediency  of  a- 
bolishing  summer  fallowing,  as  pertinent  to  a  general  systeni 
of  good  husbandry,  some  writers  contend  for  the  practice  ot 
summer  fallows,  while  the  reasons  they  assign  for  it  obviously 
show  that  they  have  derived  their  information  from  farmers 
who  have  not  understood  the  efficacjr  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  ae 
a  substitute  or  preparatory  measure  for  summer  fallows.  Their 
reasons  are,  that  a  fallow  in  the  summer  months  is  the  only  ef- 
fectual  method  to  thoroughly  clean  the  land  of  weeds  ;  but  the 
object  of.  leguminous*  crops,  raised  on  the  lands,  which  would 
be  otherwise  fallowed,  is  intended  not  only  to  extirpate  the 
weeds  more  eft*ectually,  but  to  enrich  the  lande,  and  better  pre- 
pare them  for  a  winter  crop.  If  any  of  the  leguminous  crops 
are  to  precede  the  sowing  of  winter  grain,  and  they  are  kept 
clean,  as  every  sucli  crop  should  be  to  render  it  successful,  it 
is  very  evident  that  the  prevalence  of  weeds  will  not  only  be 
thereby  better  prevented,  but  if  the  same  nourishment  is  appli- 
ed to  the  leguminous  crop  which  was  intended  for  the  succeed- 
ing crop,  the  soil  will  be  thereby  more  fertilized. 

It  should  however  be  understood,  that  this  practice  of  substi- 
tuting a  rotation  of  crops  for  summer  fallow,  cannot  be  recom- 
mended only  in  those  parts  of  the  country,  where  the  continu* 
anceof  the  warm  season  will  admit  of  bringing  to  maturity  and 
clearing  off  the  preparatory  crop  in  season  for  the  reception  of 
the  winter  grain  seed.  But  where  the  climate  will  admit  of  a 
tillagef   crop  annually,  it  appears  to  be  the  prevailing  opinion 

*  Under  the  head  of  le^umiiious  crops,  the  British  farmers  rank 
beHDs,  peas,  lares,  potatoes,  turnips.  rota-ba*a.  cabbages,  and  car- 
rots, which  they  call  enriching  crops*  See  lincyclopedia,  under 
agriculture,  p.  232. 

t  By  tillage  crops,  should  be  understood,  those  which  are  culti- 
vated with  the  plouo;h  aud  hoe,   in  distinction  from  those  of  grass. 


AGRreULTURAL    ESSAIS. 


among  modern  agriculturalists,  both  in  Europe  and  the  United 
►States,  that  the  productive  capital  of  our  country  may  be  in- 
creased by  increasing  both  the  quality  and  fertility  of  lands 
suitable  for  annua]  tillage,  by  substituting  a  rotation  of  crops, 
tor  summer  fallow,  whenever  circumstances  will  admit  of  it. 

U  is  very  evident  that  old  grass,  when  broken  up,  cannot  be 
Hufiiciently  subdued,  for  a  culmiferous  crop,  either  of  summer  or 
winter  gram,  unless  ploughed  the  autumn  preceding  seed  time  ; 
and  if  broken  up  in  autumn,  it  may  be  prepared  for  a  summer 
crop,  which  if  properly  managed,  will  make  to  the  cultivator  a 
saving  of  one  year's  rent.'* 

When  lands  are  stocked  with  clover,  or  any  other  artificial 
grass,  which  is  in  such  a  state  of  vegetation  that  it  may  be 
supposed  to  fertilize  the  soil,  so  that  the  crop  of  grass  it  may 
produce,  together  with  the  increased  fertility  of  the  soil,  will 
more  than  compensate  for  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  a 
summer  tillage  crop,  it  may  be  best  to  let  it  remain,  till  the 
crop  of  grass  is  off,  und  then  after  turning  it  over  with  the 
plough,  sow  on  the  furrows  winter  grain,  after  first  drawing  a 
bush,  or  very  light  harrow,  so  as  not  to  uncover  the  sward,  and 
then  cover  the  seed  in  the  same  manner.  But  still  it  is  believ- 
ed that  on  such  lands,  if  the  farmer  can  dispense  with  the  crop 
of  hay,  the  soil  may  be  better  prepared  for  winter  grain  by 
swne  leguminous  crop.  A  tillage  summer  crop  will  more 
effectually  pulverize  the  soil,  than  can  be  effected  by  the  usual 
BU'mmer  fallow. 


SoiLiivc,  ITS  Origin  attd  Advantages. 

The  feeding  of  cattle,t  in  stalls  or  other  suitable  places,  du- 
ring the  growing  season,  with  grass  cut  and  carried  to  them, 
is  a  practice  denominated  soiling  of  cattle;  and  prevails  exten- 
sively in  Great  Britain  and  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 

This  practice,  like  many  others,  which  have  led  to  important 

*  See  Essay  on  Wheat. 

t  In  r.gricultnral  science,  the  e:eneral  name  of  cattle  is  given  to 
all  tame  animals  which  ar^  f-V?  in  pastures,  and  the  term  neat 
fettle,  is  used  to  distinguish  the  low  kind  from  other?. 


ORIGIN    AND    ADVANTAGES    OV    SOILING.  59 

discoveries  and  improvements  in  the  science  of  agricultrire, 
must  have  probably  orig^inated  from  the  necessities  of  those 
who  occupied  but  small  tracts  of  land,  and  who  needed  the 
produce  of  more  stock  tlian  could  be  sustained  from  common 
pasture,  as  it  is  generally  improved.  This  practice  cannot 
therefore  be  recommended  t©  that  class  of  farmers,  which  per- 
tiaps  are  the  most  numerous  in  this  country,  who  possess  con- 
siderable tracts  of  land,  which  can  hardly  be  rendered  suitable 
for  any  other  purpose  but  pasturage  ;  or  to  that  class,  who, 
without  the  greatest  regard  to  the  neat  profits,  would  rather 
indulge  a  disposition  to  consult  their  ease  in  their  modes  of 
cultivation :  but  to  that  class  whose  farms  are  small,  and  who 
are  stimulated  by  the  laudable  ambition  of  improving  a  little 
land  highly  cultivated,  rather  than  a  great  farm  badly  manag- 
ed ;  and  to  that  class  also  whose  whole  farms  are  capable  of 
bemg  cither  tilled  or  mown ;  particularly,  when  their  condition 
IS  such  that  they  cannot  easily  procure  manures. 

The  advantages  to  be  derived  from  soiling',  have  been  re 
commended  by  some  very  celebrated  authors,  and  other  emi 
nent  farmers  of  Great  Britain. 

Dr.  Thaer,  physician  to  the  Electoral  court  of  Hanover  in  » 
communication  to  the  English  Board  of  Agriculture,  lays  do^n 
the  following  as  facts  which  are  incontrovertible,  as  the  result 
of  the  experience  of  the  Baron  de  Bulan  and  others  •  "That  i 
spot  of  ground  which,  when  pastured,  will  yield  only'sufficient 
hUhestablT  abundantly  maintain  four  Vjien  kept 

"Soiling  affords  at  least  double  the  quantity  of  manure  from 
the  same  number  of  cattle  ;  for  the  best  summer  manrelpro 
duced  in  the  stable,  and  carried  to  the  fields  at  the  most  proper 
period  of  Its  fermentation  ;  whereas  when  spread  on  the  mea 
wasted"     ''''^^"'^^^  ^y  ^^^  ^"*  ^"^  «""'  Its  power  is  ent"Jefy 

"Cows  which  are  accustomed  to  soiling,  will  yield  much 
more  milk  when  kept  in  this  manner:  and  fatting^caitir w'll 
increase  much  faster  in  weight.  ^ 

nJwf ^/r  ^^M'^^i'^"^  ^^  accidents  and  diseases  ;  thev  are 
protected  from  the   flies,  whicrh    torment  them  in  the  Lws 

ofTIm^"  ""''"'  '"'  ''^^'^  -ot  suffer  from  the  heS 

.    As  it  respects  the  quantity  of  land  saved  by  soiling-,  it  must 

l.l1Zr.Z^!r\  ^tP""^  ""  '^'  natureof  thesc^  andthe 
condition  of  the  land  appropriated  for  that  purpose.  All  the 
writers  on  this  subject,  as  ^ell  as  many  other  practical  farm! 
ers,  appear  to  be  well  agreed  in  this  one  point,  that  a  given 


GO  AGRICULTURAL      ESSAYS. 

quantity  of  land  may  be  made  to  sustain  many  more  cattle, 
and  to  keep  them  better,  by  soiling  than  by  pasturing  them. 
The  great  question  is,,  whether  the  economy  on  land  and  sav- 
ing of  manure  is  a  sufficient  compensation  for  the  extra  labor. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  practice  of  soiling  would 
be  very  profitable  to  those  who  would  derive  the  greatest  pro- 
fit from  a  small  tract  of  land  ;  and  many  who  practise  it  upon 
a  large  scale,  think  it  good  husbandry.* 


Advantages  or  the  Roller. 

This  implement  has  long  been  used  in  Great  Britain,  and 
considered  very  necessary  in  an  improved  state  of  husbandry. 
Tt  c^kTlnot  however  be  used  successfully,  except  on  lands  which 
are  clear  of  stumps  and  stones  on  the  sarface.  But  on  such 
ground  it  is  useful  to  smooth  the  surface  of  meadows,  which 
are  uneven.  They  are  useful  also  in  breaking  the  lumps  of 
baked  earth  in  a  clayey  soil,  and  for  passing  over  ground  new- 
ly sown  with  grain,  or  that  are  to  be  laid  down  to  grass,  as  it 
will  render  the  surface  forever  after  while  in  meadow,  more 
smooth,  so  as  to  enable  the  farmer  to  cut  more  of  the  grass, 
and  with  less  labor.  •  ,    j-^j. 

Its  use,  on  dry  grounds,  which  are  sowed  with  different 
kinds  of  grain,  is  to  cause  the  mould  to  inclose  the  seed,  many 
of  which°by  lying  in  cavities,  that  soon  become  dried,  might 
otherwise  fail  of  vegetating  ;  while  it  prevents  the  moisture 
p-enerally  from  evaporating  so  easily  as  it  otherwise  would. 
It  is  also  useful  in  depriving  certain  insects  of  their  hiding 
places  in  the  cavities  of  the  soil. 

The  rolling  of  land  in  tillage,  should  be  done  when  the  ground 
is  so  dry  that  it  will  not  stick  to  the  roller  ;  and  it  should  be 
performed  on  grass  lands  in  the  spring  when  the  ground  is  soft 
and  wet.  j    i      ^ 

A  wooden  roller  should  be  about  six  feet  in  length,  and  about 
twenty  inches  in  diameter,  round  and  of  a  uniform  surface.  It 
ae  sometimes  made  with  stone,  and  then  it  should  be  about  foifr- 

*  See  further  remarks  on  this  subject,  under  essay  on  artificial 

grasses. 


ADVANTAGES  OF    THE  ROLLER.  61 

teen  inches  in  diameter,  and  about  the  same  length  as  the  a- 
bove  mentioned  wooden  one.  The  summer  fallow  is  greatly 
improved  in  strong  soils,  because  without  its  aid  the  large  and 
obdarate  clods  cannot  be  reduced  ;  and  it  appears  that  for  ac- 
complishing the  different  purposes  for  which  rollers  may  be 
necessary,  those  of  various  sizes  and  dimensions  may  be  re- 
quired. It  is  said  that  wooden  rollers  drawn  by  one  horse  an- 
swer very  well  for  grass  and  turnip  land ;  but  massy  stone  rol- 
lers drawn  by  two  or  three  horses,  are  necessary  on  clayey 
soils.  "The  expedition  which  takes  place  when  rollers  are 
used,  compared  with  the  tedious  and  expensive  progress  of 
breaking  clods  with  malls,  formerly  the  general  custom,*  suffi- 
ciently proves  the  importance  of  these  implements,  though  it 
deserves  to  be  remarked,  that  when  rolling  is  bestow-^ 
ed  upon  a  spring  sown  field,  harrowing  it  afterwards,  is  of 
great  advantage.  By  harrowing  it  after  the  clods  are  reduced, 
the  earth  stands  the  effects  of  rain  better  afterwards,  and  does 
not  consolidate  so  firmly  as  when  that  process  is  neglected. 

"The  spiky  roller  is  much  recommended  by  some  English 
writers  for  mellowing  some  clayey  ground  that  is  baked  in  clods. 
It  is  also  recommended  to  be  passed  over  fields  of  wheat  in  the 
spring,  for  the  purpose  of  loosening  the  ground,  and  then  to  be 
followed  by  a  brush  harrowing."  But  quere  ;  this  must  depend 
on  the  peculiar  condition  of  the  soil  and  grain  at  the  time.  "Its 
further  use  is  to  tear  and  loosen  old  grass  bound  meadows,  for 
the  purpose  of  making  the  grass  grow  more  thriftly  again." 
But  had  not  such  old  grass  bound  meadows  ought  to  be 
ploughed  up  ?  f 

The  spiky  roller  is  merely  a  wooden  roller  with  iron  teeth,  or 
spikr-  drove  into  it.  They  are  to  be  about  seven  inches  long, 
and  drove  three  inches  into  the  wood,  and  set  four  inches  a- 
part,  in  diagonal  rows  round  the  roller,  the  outer  ends  are  not 
to  be  sharp,  but  square. 

*  This  has  an  allusion  to  the  custom  in  Great  Britain  ;  Ihe  farm- 
ers in  the  United  States  have  generally  used  in  tillage  no  other 
process  to  break  the  clods,  but  with  the  harrow.  It  is  only  in  pla- 
c^es  where  agriculture  is  progressing  in  a  state  of  great  improvement, 
that  it  is  believed  to  be  necessary  that  the  soil  should  be  perfectly 
and  uniformly  pulverized,  either  before  or  after  the  seed  is  commit- 
ted to  it. 

t  See  essay  on  improving  land  by  breaking  up  old  grass  with 
the  plough. 


^  agricultural  essays. 

Culture  of  Wheat. 

The  great  varieties  of  wheat  which  have  heretofore  been 
known  by  different  names  and  properties,  appear  at  present  to 
be  classed  by  the  British  Agriculturalists  under  two  principal 
divisions,  though  each  of  these  admits  of  several  subdivisions. 
The  first  is  composed  of  all  the  varieties  of  red  wheat.  The 
second  division  comprehends  the  whole  varieties  of  white  wheat; 
which  again  may  be  arranged  under  two  distmct  heads,  name- 
ly, thick  chaffed  and  thin  chaffed.  But  as  the  the  thick  chaffed 
wheat  has  by  the  British  farmers  been  supposed  to  be  constitu- 
tionally predisposed  to  the  disease  called  mildew,  it  is  generally 
gone  out  of  use.  The  thin  chaffed  wheat  is  said  to  be  a  hardy 
class,  and  seldom  mildewed,  unless  the  weather  be  particular- 
ly inimical  during  the  stages  of  blossoming,  filling  and  ripen- 
ing, though  some  of  them  are  rather  better  qualified  to  resist 
that  disorder  than  others.  There  is  no  important  di- 
vision of  the  classes  of  wheat  generally  in  use  in  the  United 
States,  but  that  of  winter  and  spring  or  summer  wheat.  The 
varieties  which  may  be  said  to  grow  out  of  these  two  divisions, 
respectively,  are  distinguished  rather  by  their  different  quali- 
ties, than  by  any  distinct  properties  peculiar  to  their  kind.  And 
the  different  qualities  are  owing  sometimes  to  diseases,  as  mil- 
dew, blight  and  rust,  occasioned  by  the  inevitable  effects  of  un- 
propitious  seasons ;  though  perhaps  oftener  from  bad  culture, 
such  as  sowing  poor  seed,  on  unsuitable  soil,  want  of  manure 
and  proper  tillage.  Bad  seasons  may  unavoidably  injure  the 
quality  of  wheat,  bad  culture  will  inevitably  do  it. 

In  every  part  of  the  United  States  where  the  climate  and  sit- 
uation will  admit  of  this  crop,  it  has  been  found  that  winter 
wheat  will  grow  in  almost  every  dry  soil  that  is  sufficiently 
rich.  Very  sandy  and  very  gravelly  soils  are  however  thought 
to  be  the  most  unsuitable.  Dry  red  loaims  with  a  trifle  of  clay 
in  them  are  thought  to  be  the  best.  It  is  said  that  the  soil,  the 
analysis  of  which  is  mentioned  in  the  essay  on  the  nature  and 
constituent  properties  of  soil,  which  consisted  5(3  parts  sand,  26 
clay,  12  of  vegetable  substances,  such  as  compost  manure,  and 
six  of  soluble  salts,  would  produce  great  wheat,  as  almost  every 
other  crop.  It  has  been  found  by  experience  that  the  time  for 
sowing  depends  much  on  previous  habit.  Thus,  if  it  were 
sown  a  number  of  successive  years  by  the  middle  of  August, 
and  then  the  time  of  sowing  were  changed  at  once  to  October, 
the  crop  would  be  lighter  on  that  account.  But  where  wheat 
has  become  habituated  to  be  sown  late,  it  does  well.  The  la- 
ter it  is  sown  the  more  seed  is  requisite.     A  bushel  to  tlie  acre 


CULTURE    OF    WHEAT.  g3 

might  answer  when  sown  early,  when  the  same  seed,  on  the 
same  soil  might  be  sown  so  late  as  to  require  a  bushel  and  a 

1^5/'  T"f\  ,^"^-^^^  ^"^"^^^y  °^  '^^^  ^^^eat  like  most  o?her 
seeds,  should  also,  m  some  measure,  be  apportioned  to  the  qual- 

XnuTl^  '  ^'  '^  T^  ^^  supposed  to  produce  more  stalks  in 
a  rich  than  m  a  more  barren  soil,  by  affording  more  of  that  nour- 
ishment  necessary  to  their  germination  and  growth.  The  quan- 
tity necessary  must  therefore  be  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
fhpTrf' J.      "  ^Jll  '^''^'.'K^  ^^^^  '^^"^^  t^k^  into  consideration 

t  is  sowpr""  f  .K  '  '^'^'/^^  V^^^y  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^'  ^nd  tlie  time 
It  is  sowed,  whether  early  or  later. 

seedls'^ofn'aln'i^  ^  ^r?"^  T^  ^.^^"^'^  ^^  expected  unless  the 
wheat  ,nS  IZi  "^""^'1^'  !'^^  ^'^"^  th^  ^^^in^  «f  diseased 
that  tt  ^PP^  i?  u  '^^^'  f  '^^^^'-  T^^  English  farmers  say 
'  on  sandv  kn/  r  V'"'^'  ^^  ^^l'"''  of  wheat  which  has  grown 
on  sandy  land  nor  from  any  other  but  from  that  which  has 
grown  on  soils  most  natural  to  it.      The  changing  of  seel 

n^  If  h.' t"^''  ''  ""Tfl^  '^  "^^"  circumstances  wil  ad 
nnt.  It  has  been  remarked  that  in  the  culture  of  Indian  corn 
Its  seed  will  be  more  productive  if  brought  from  diSnt  nla' 

a  large  proporUon  of  water,  becomes  celLlar  as  the  later  free 
Hell  r„t  b^onlT"'  protuberance.,  so  that  the  mot^  rfSfe 
«  heat  plant  become  disengaged  from  their  hold  in  the  soil  It 
.s  very  manifest  that  if  wheat  be  sowed  so  early  haTeach  nlan 
may  have  tmie  to  extend  its  roots  into  the  so  [,  its  chance  for 
retaining  its  hold  will  be  better."*  " 

Spring  wheat  should  be  sown  as  early  as  thp  irmim^  „,„  >. 
mademellow     It  grows  best  on  new  ribband!  frlandswLh 

ptTedrng  yTa    "'Tist^:;^  ^"7'  '"'''"  '""  "Po"t:s''lhe 
f-^^.l-^  ^  ^  ^'^   ,  ""d  ^^  degenerate  very  quicklv  •  and 

necessL7'"°"'''  '"'^  ''  '""  '  "^"'^  northe^irclimtt'e  arc 

The  summer  wheat  which  is  brought  from  Canada  m  found 

caZn  Tha^  wH  n^'  l''^'  ^"  the  ^northern  states  of  aSS 
lul\l  .  •  which  has  been  sown  here  for  some  time.  Bat 
Wheat  that  is  carried  to  a  climate  much  more  northerly  thm 

*  Eaton's  Agricultural  Calender. 


g4  A©RlC«Li;iRAL   E&SATB. 

that  in  which  it  has  long  been  sown,  wiU  not  answer  well,  as  it 
will  be  too  long  in  ripening.  ^    ,.     .  , 

When  a  soil  natural  to  the  production  of  wheat  becomes  too 
much  exhausted,  the  farmer  who  can  apply  a  suitable  quantity 
of  vegetable  manure,  will  be  thereby  enabled  to  insure  a  good 
crop  But  as  the  economy  of  saving  and  preparing  manure 
composed  of  vegetable  substances,  decayed  or  decomposed,  has 
not  yet  been  much  attended  to  in  this  country,  other  means 
may  be  successfully  resorted  to.  One  of  these  is  what  is  cal- 
led  rreen  dressing.  This  is  done  by  turnmg  under  with  the 
plough  a  growth  of  green  vegetables,  for  the  purpose  of  manur- 

'In^Gr'eat  Britain,  and  in  ^ome  parts  of  our  country  buck 
wheat  is  much  used  for  this  purpose.  When  this  is  to  be  aone 
the  land  which  is  intended  for  a  crop  of  wheat,  should  be 
lughed  up  in  the  month  of  May,  instead  of  the  time  usually 
practiced,  after  the  first  hoeing  of  corn;  and  about  half  a 
bushel  of  buckwheat  to  the  acre,  sown  and  lightly  cove  ed 
with  a  bush,  so  as  not  to  uncover  any  of  the  vegetable  anb 
...tances  that  may  be  turned  under  with  the  plough  ;  and  ^^  hen 
in  blossom,  run  a  roller  over  it  exactly  in  the  way  ^t  is  «  ^e 
ploughed  under.  By  that  means,  it  may  be  more  effectually 
S)VP?pd  with  The  plough.  Aft^^r  it  ha«  h^.n  turned  under 
Xut  twenty  days  or  a  month,  it  will  be  rotten,  and  ma  pro- 
nerstate  to  be  ploughed  again  to  receive  the  grain  intended 
to  be  sown  If  the  buckwheat,  before  it  is  sown,  is  wet, 
Ind  as  much  gypsum  as  will  adhere  to  the  grain,  strewed  oyer 
ft  the  ^rowt!/  of  it  will  be  much  larger,  and  of  course  the 
quantity  of  manure  thereby  increased.  u         ;» 

^Another  vegetable,  proper  for  the  green  dressing  culture,  i« 
red  clover.  This  too  should  be  turned  under  with  the  plough 
when  in  full  blossom  ;  if  the  farmer  cannot  dispense  with  the 
Top  of  clover  for  feeding  his  stock,  still  he  will  find  by  plough- 
inVunder  what  remains  of  the  clover,  will  ftirnish  him  with  a 
considerable  supply  of  manure  for  his  crop  of  wheat. 

If  the  soil  is  dfy  and  sandy,  gypsum  should  be  sovyn  on  the 
€lover,  and  in  a  good  season,  a  good  crop  of  wheat  may,  by 

''Tn  moToV'tL';^'^^^^^^^  in  the  northern  and  middle 

States,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  lands  which  are  summer  fal- 
lowed  are  lands  which  have  been  considerably  reduced  by  too 
freq  lent  cropping,  and  some  benefit  is  expected  from  the  ma- 
nure which  mW  he  derived  from  the  small  quantity  of  grass  and 
other  vegetable  substances  which  are  turned  under  ^vith  the 
plough;  and  for  tj«  rest  of  the  food  necessary  for  the  success  of 


Culture  of  wheat.  63 

the  crop,  they  rely  on  scattering  over  the  field  what  little  ma- 
nure they  have  saved  from  their  barn-yard,  and  that  often  by 
greatly  lessening  their  spring  crop  which  needs  its  nourishment. 
This  practice,  as  a  general  system  of  husbandry,  has  been 
too  much  over  rated.  Mr.  Davey,  in  his  agricultural  chemistry, 
observes,  that  when  weeds  are  buried  in  the  soil,  by  their  grad- 
ual decomposition,  they  furnish  a  certain  quantity  of  soluble 
matter  ;  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  there  is  as  much  use- 
ful manure  in  the  land  at  the  end  of  a  clean  fallow,  as  at  the 
time  the  vegetables  clothing  the  surface  were  first  ploughed 
in.  Carbonic  acid  gas  is  formed  during  the  whole  time  by  the 
action  of  the  vegetable  matter  upon  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and 
the  greater  part  of  it  is  lost  to  the  soil  in  which  it  was  formed, 
and  dissipated  in  the  atmosphere.  The  action  of  the  sun  upon 
the  surface  of  the  soil  tends  to  disengage  the  gasseous  and 
the  volatile  fluid  matters  that  it  contains.  And  heat  increases 
the  rapidity  of  fermentation  ;  and  by  the  summer  fallow  nour- 
ishment is  rapidly  produced  at  a  time  when  no  vegetables  are 
present  capable  of  absorbing  it. 

He  farther  observes,  that  land,  when  it  is  not  employed  in 
preparing  food  for  animals,  should  be  applied  to  the  purposes 
of  preparing  manure  for  plants  ;  and  this  is  eflTected  by  means 
of  green  crops  in  consequence  of  the  absorption  of  carbona- 
cious  matter  in  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere.  In  a 
summer  fallow,  a  period  is  always  lost  in  which  vegetables 
may  be  raised  either  as  food  for  animals,  or  as  nourishment 
for  the  next  crop ;  and  the  texture  of  the  soil  is  not  so  much 
improved  by  its  exposure  as  in  winter,  when  the  expansive . 
powers  of  ice,  the  gradual  dissolution  of  snows,  and  the  alter- 
nations from  wet  to  dry,  tend  to  pulverize  it  and  to  mix  its  dif- 
ferent parts  together. 

By  the  method  of  green  dressing,  above  described,  two 
great  advantages  are  obviously  derived.  One  is  the  acquisi- 
tion of  a  supply  of  manure  which  wUl  be  sufficient  to  insure  a 
good  crop ;  and  which  in  some  conditions  the  farmer  could  ■ 
procure  from  no  other  source  : — The  other  is  that  by  plough- 
ing it  in  the  spring,  as  in  the  case  of  buckwheat,  before  grass 
and  other  noxious  weeds  gain  strength,  their  prolific  tendency 
is  greatly  retarded  if  not  entirely  destroyed.  And  it  cannot  be 
kept  too  much  in  mind,  that  all  weeds  by  being  suffered  to 
grow,  exhaust  the  soil.  Any  given  quantity  of  grass  or  weeds, 
growing  with  a  crop  of  wheat,  or  any  other  which  is  cultivated, 
lessens  its  product  in  proportion  to  the  weight  of  the  green 
weeds  with  that  of  the  growing  crop. 

But  to  remedy  the  evil  resulting  from  summer  fallowing 
r  2 


6&  AGRICULTURAL    ES3AfS. 

and  also  prepare  the  soil  for  a  crop  of  wheat  with  less  barn  Gi 
vegetable  manure,  the  best  method,  and  that  which  is  most 
practised  at  the  present  time,  both  in  Europe  and  some  parte 
of  the  United  States,  is  by  a  change  of  crops.  That  is,  by 
sowing  wheat  after  certain  other  crops,  which  from  their  na- 
ture are  calculated  to  prepare  the  soil  for  the  culture  of  wheat. 
There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  land  which  is  fallowed  for  a 
wheat  crop  in  the  month  of  June,  in  the  usual  way,  might,  by 
being  ploughed  early  in  the  spring,  and  sowed  with  peas,  or 
planted  with  potatoes  or  beans,  be  made  by  such  culture  not 
only  to  produce  to  the  farmer  a  clear  saving  of  either  of  those 
crops  for  that  year,  but  also  prepare  the  soil  so  as  to  render  the 
success  of  the  crop  of  wheat  thereon  the  next  year  much  more 
certain. — The  adrantages  of  this  mode  of  culture  for  wheat 
result  from  two  considerations — first  it  has  been  found  by 
ehemical  analysis  of  these  plants,  that  the  bean,  the  pea,  and 
the  potato,  contain  a  large  portion  of  the  same  soluble  and 
nutrative  substances  that  are  contained  in  wheat.  The  vines 
if  those  plants,  therefore,  when  ploughed  under  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  furnish  a  useful  manure  for  wheat ;  and  by  the  culture 
of  these  plants,  the  w^eeds  of  eveiy  description  are  more  effec- 
tually destroyed,  than  by  the  summer  fallow.  It  may  there- 
fore, be  correctly  calculated,  that  the  barn  or  other  vegetable 
manure  which  is  usually  applied  to  the  soil  after  a  fallow  for 
wheat,  will,  if  first  applied  to  those  preparatory  crops^  become 
jnuch  more  useful  to  the  crop  of  wheat. 

The  changes  of  crops  which  are  best  calculated  to  affect 
the  success  of  the  wheat  crop,  as  well  as  many  others,  will  de- 
pend on  the  soil  and  other  circumstances  which  may  attend  the 
condition  of  the  farmer.  In  a  fertile  sand,  sandy  loam,  grav- 
elly loam,  or  other  dry  warm  soil,  it  has  been  found  profitable 
by  some  practical  farmers  to  adopt  the  following  rotation  of 
orops ;  to  begin  the  first  year  with  corn  and  potatoes,  first 
ploughing  in  all  the  barn  dung  made  that  spring ;  the  second 
year  corn,  which  will  then  receive  the  greatest  benefit  from 
the  rotten  dung,  and  the  previously  fermented  state  of  the  soil ; 
the  third  year  barley,  and  clover  sown  with  it ;  the  fourth  clo- 
ver; the  fifth  clover,  one  crop,  and  then  the  sward  after  the  clo- 
ver has  grown  considerably  again,  well  turned  over,  and  harrow- 
ed in  with  wheat;  the  sixth,  wheat  sown  as  before  mentioned 
^ith  clover ;  the  seventh  and  eighth  with  clover  ;  and  then  the 
sward  torn  up  again  in  the  fall  for  potatoes  the  next  year. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  this  rotation,  if  the  soil  is  well  fertiliz- 
ed and  prepared  the  first  year  for  the  corn  and  potatoes,  it  may- 
be kept  in  good  condition  for  any  of  the  succeeding  crops  of 


CtLTURE  OF  W  HE  AST.  67 

wheat,  by  the  fertilizing  effects  of  the  other  crops,  without  any 
other  additional  manure,  and  that  too,  with  the  saving  of  a  valu- 
able crop  in  every  year.  There  will  also  be  materials  furnish- 
ed for  making  an  annual  provision  for  manure  from  the  clover 
hay,  corn  stalks,  potato  vines,  and  the  strav/  and  stubble  of  the 
barley  and  wheat,  which  being  properly  saved  and  applied  will 
not  only  preserve  the  soil  in  its  original  fertility  when  the  rota- 
tion commenced,  but  would  greatly  increase  it. 

The  rotation  which  has  been  above  described  may  suggest 
to  the  mind  of  the  intelligent  farmer,  olliers,  by  which  the 
same  object  may  be  effected.  In  raising  this  crop  the  hopegf 
of  the  farmer  are  often  liable  to  be  blasted  by  the  ravages  of  are 
insect  called  tbe  Hessian  Fly. 

A  remedy  for  this  evil  may  be  found  in  the  following  account 
of  a  respectable  farmer  of  Pennsylvania: — "This  destructive 
insect  is  propagated  from  the  egg's  of  the  fly,  deposited  on  the 
grains  of  wheat  when  ripening;  the  truth  of  which  I  learned 
from  actual  observation.  The  fly  may  be  seen  by  the  middle' 
of  June,  and  from  that  time  till  wheat  is  cut,  flying  about  and 
lighting  upon  ears  of  wheat.  It  deposits  its  eggs  upon  the  ou- 
ter end  of  the  grain,  where  they  may  be  seen  with  a  good  mi- 
croscope or  optic  glass  ;  sometimes  to  the  number  of  six  or  sev- 
en on  one  grain.  They  remain  there  till  the  grain  is  sown.  It 
bursts  its  shell  and  enters  the  shoot  where  it  lie's  in  a  torpitf 
state  till  the  next  spring,  except  in  some  instances,  when  wheat 
is  sown  early,  the  fly  commences  its  ravages  in  the  fall.  When- 
this  is  discovered,  the  best  method  is  to  turn  sheep  upon  it,  and 
pasture  it  short,  either  in  the  fall  or  in  the  winter. 

The  most  effectual  way  to  check  the  propagation,  is  in  pre- 
paring the  seed  before  sown,  which  should  be  in  the  following 
manner : — Put  you  seed  into  a  nogshead,  tub,  or  vat,  and  even 
it  with  water ;  let  it  stand  ten  or  twelve  hours ;  then  put  off 
the  water,  put  the  wheat  upon  the  barn  floor  and  sprinkle  lime 
over,  and  with  a  shovel  mix  it  till  it  is  well  covered  with  lime. 
Let  it  remain  in  that  state  24  hours,  and  the  eggs  will  be  des- 
troyed without  any  injury  to  the  seed.  The  following  obser- 
vations lead  to  this  discovery.  In  viewing  several  grains  of 
wheat  in  a  microscope  something  resembling  the  egga  of  in- 
sects was  observed  upon  them.  Twenty  grains  were  selected 
with  those  appearances  ;  they  ^ere  put  upon  some  raw  cotton 
and  a  little  earth,  in  a  tumbler  of  water,  and  observed  every 
day ;  and  on  the  day  the  grain  opened  and  put  forth  its  tender 
fibre,  the  insect  burst  from  its  shell  and  was  not  to  be  seen. 
Ten  days  after,  five  of  the  grains  with  their  roots  and  blades 
were  taken  from  the  glass  and  carefully  examined.     In  three 


66  AGRierTLYtTRAL   ESSAYS. 

of  them  the  insects  were  found.  The  other  seventeen  remained, 
and  overspread  the  top  of  the  glass.  They  were  preserved  till 
spring,  when  on  examining  them,  every  stalk  had  an  insect  in 
it,  some  two,  and  one  had  four.  Twenty  other  grains  were  se- 
lected, and  the  lime  applied  for  twelve  hours.  It  was  then 
washed,  and  the  color  of  the  eggs  were  changed,  and  being 
put  into  a  glass,  in  like  manner  as  the  others,  the  wheat  grew,, 
but  the  eggs  did  not  produce.  The  roots  were  transplanted 
and  grew  well.  And  ten  bushels  of  wheat  limed  as  above,  pro- 
duced a  good  crop,  while  the  neighboring  fields  suffered  mate- 
rially, and  some  v/ere  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the  fly." 

Smut  is  often  a  great  injury  to  a  crop  of  wheat.  For  a  rem- 
edy the  following  experiment  developes  much  useful  informa- 
tion on  this  subject: — Mr.  Young  sowed  fourteen  beds  with  the 
same  wheat  seed  as  black  with  smut,  he  says,  as  he  ever  saw 
any.  The  first  bed  was  sown  with  this  wheat  without  wash- 
ing, and  this  had  377  smutty  ears.  That  washed  in  clean  wa- 
ter had  3*25 ;  that  in  lime  water  43 ;  that  in  lye  of  wood  ashes 
31 ;  that  in  arsenic  28 ;  again,  that  steeped  in  lime  water  four 
hours  had  12 ;  that  in  lye  four  hours  had  12 ;  that  in  arsenic 
four  hours  had  1.  And  again,  that  which  was  steeped  in  ly^ 
as  before  mentioned  12  hours  had  none,  and  that  which  was 
steeped  in  the  same  kind  of  lye  24  hours  had  none ;  that  also- 
which  w-as  steeped  24  hours  in  lime  water  had  none ;  that  steep- 
ed in  arsenic  24  hours,  had  five.  It  appears  from  this  experi- 
ment that  steeping  the  seed  24  hours  inlye  will  eflfectually  pre- 
vent smut.  Let  the  lye  be  ma,de  pretty  strong,  and  if  the  seed 
wheat  is  steeped  longer  it  will  not  injure  it  unless  it  be  kept 
too  warm.  Lime  water  and  salt  lime  applied  in  this  manner, 
will,  no  doubt,  answer  the  same  purpose.  If  steeping  in  arsen- 
ic a  longer  time  should  prove  effectual,  this  would  also  be  an 
excellent  antidote  to  birds  ;  or  to  prevent  them  from  picking 
up  the  seeds,  the  lime  water  and  arsenic  might  be  used  togeth- 
er. It  has  been  observed  that  seed  wheat  which  has  been  well 
ripened  before  harvesting  is  much  less  liable  to  must  than  that 
which  has  been  cut  early.  Let  tlie  wheat  for  seed  be  the  last 
harvested,  and  let  it  be  kept  by  itself  perfectly  dry  until  it  is 
thraghed.  Some  have  practiced  thrashing  it  out  in  the  field 
when  in  a  very  dry  state.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  is  that 
smut  is  believed  to  be  somewhat  infectious  •,  and  therefore  if 
wheat,  entirely  free  of  this  disorder,  be  put  in  a  mow  with 
smutty  wheat,  the  whole  mass  will  become  more  or  less  in- 
fected with  smut,  by  reason  of  sweating  or  heating  of  the 
mow. 

Wheat  that  is  very  smutty  in  the  field,  should  not  be  hat- 


CULTURE    OF    WHEAT".  ^ 


^^A  nntn   thP  croD  is  SO  fully  ripe  and  dry  that  it  will  shell 
ruffonTit^brrharlestin/and^ 

the  field  would  no  doubt,  in  this  case,  be  preferable.  As  the 
dryer  the  crop  is  when  thrashed,  the  more  readily  would  the 

'"^Mn^wtThought  to  be  occasioned  by  cool  nights  when 
the  atmosphere  has  become  cooler  than  the  earth,  which  m 
that  caTe  forces  the  juices  upward  too  fast,  and  thus  bursts  o- 
pen  the  stalks  ;  to  which  there  is  no  remedy  known:  butite 
^ffoM«  ft  m  said  may  be  in  a  great  measure  counteracted,  by 
cS  the  XatTsoon  as  if  is  discovered  to  be  struck  with 
mS  .  thir  may  be  done  three  weeks  before  the  usual  time 

"^The'^rallf  in  that  case  will  be  smaller  than  usual  but,  it  is 
said  will  make  much  better  flour,  and  the  q^/n^i^y  J^f  ,^« 
greater,  as  the  skin  will  be  found  very  thm.  If  the  g^a^n  has 
Attained  its  full  si-e,  though  only  m  the  milk,  i  is  suffi- 
c  entT  as  it  will  receive  that  nourishment  from  the  s  alk  which 
serve;  to  mature  it.  Mr.  Young  says,  that  when  the  wheat 
4m  has  a  particular  cast,  of  a  blmsh  green,  it  is  then  aff-ected 
with  mildew.  The  green  stalks  of  the  wheat  must  be  suffi- 
cYently  dried  before  stacking,  and  when  carted  m,  they  will  be 
clear  of  the  mildew,  and  will  make  good  fodder. 

It  is  believed  by  some  farmers,  that  nothing  is  gamed  by  let- 
ting wheat  stand  'until  it  is  fully  ripe,  that  is,  till  the  heads  turn 
down,  before  it  is  harvested.  One  reason  given  is,  that  if  it 
standi  so  long,  considerable  will  be  sheUed  out  before  it  is  got 
into  the  barnTand  even  if  the  bulk  should  m  this  case  be  great- 
er  still  it  is  not  certain  the  weight  will  be  increased  ;  and  as 
wheat  is  sold  by  weight,  not  by  the  bushel,  and  as  it  is  known 
that  the  best  flour  is  made  from  the  earhest  harvested  wheat, 
the  farmer,  from  these  considerations,  may  probably  he  the 
gainer  by  commencing  his  harvest  some  earlier  than  the  usual 
time  By  this  means  too,  he  will  be  less  m  danger  of  havmg 
his  wheat  grown  by  long  continued  rains;  for  wheat  harvest- 
ed early,  is  less  liable  to  grow  than  that  which  is  cut  late.  Hut 
in  ascertaining  the  proper  state,  it  is  necessary  to  discriminate 
betwixt  the  ripeness  of  the  grain  and  the  ripeness  of  the  straw  ; 
for  in  some  seasons  the  straw  dies  upwards;  under  such  cir^ 
cumstances,  a  field,  which  to  the  eye  appears  to  be  completely 
fit  for  the  sickle,  may  have  its  grain  but  imperfectly  consoli- 
dated, and  perhaps  not  much  removed  from  a  milky  state, 
though  it  is  obvious  that  under  such  circumstances,  no  further 
benefit  can  be  conveyed  from  the  root,  and  that  nourishment 
js  withheld  the  moment  that  the  roots  die  ;  yet  it  uoes  ngi  tol- 


'^  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 


low  that  ^ram  m  that  condition  should  be  immediately  cut 
because  after  that  operation  is  performed  it  isST^rp!,/^  ^ 
ure  necessarily  deprived  of  every  benefit  from  th^  peatmeas- 
both  of  whichjav^  greater  .nr^u'enc^^fn^^fn"^^^^^^  ^^^ 
ty,  so  long  as  It  remains  on  foot,  than  when  cut  down  «Tf^ 
laid  on  the  ground  or  bound  up  in  she^^^i  es  ThT^' .  ^^^^'^ 
weather  at  the  time  aUo  deserves  notice  for  il  mo  f  ""^'^'^ 
variable  weather  -..,  ki,a  o"gTa^n?wht'  ^pTet^^^^^^^^^ 
IS  more  exposed  to  damage  than  when  completely  ripS^' 

.f ^l^^fu'^^  Z^  Wheat.  Since  the  last  essay  on  the  culture 
of  wheat  has  been  prepared  for  the  press,  the  following  inter- 
estmg  remarks  on  the  diseases  of  wheLt,  which  have  been 
H^vf/"^'"  ^i^^'f^^  '^  '^"^  agricultural  Encyclopedia,Tis  be 

r.io'^V'fin^.''"^'?'^"''"^'  ^^^"  ^^J^^n  ^or  granted  by  some  peo- 
ple, that  bhght,  mildevv,  and  lust,  are  the  sime  disorder  Though 
most  agriculturalists  have  hitherto  reckoned  them  separate 
diseases    biought  on  at  different  periods,  and  occT.norrd  by 

that  the  proximate  cause  of  every  disease  which  attacks  thl 
Stock  and  ear  of  wheat  plants,  may  be  foundln  the  s  ate  ofthe 
weather  at  the  time,  conjoined  wfth  the  circumstLces  of  so  l! 
situation   and  the  seed  that  has  been  used.     It  is  difficult  o 
cUsmry  these  diseases,  or  describe  them  in  a  distinct  manner  ; 
because  the  sentiments,  or  rather  the  language  of  agricultural- 
•       .?  l^u  ^""^^^""h  IS  arbitrary  and  indistinct.     Notwithstand- 
ing that  they  are  by  the  great  body  of  the  farmers,  attributed 
to  atmospherical  mfluence  solely,  yet  much  confusion  arises  in 
their  nomenclature ;  for  many  people  use  the  terms  bhght,  mil- 
i'sd^ct  diseases!  '^""^^"^""^'  ^^^"^^  ^^  "«  they  appear  to  be 
"Blight  according  to  our  ideas,  originates  from  moist  or  fog- 
gy  weather  and  from  hoar  frost,  the  effects  of  which  when  ex- 
pelled by  a  hot  sun,  are  first  discernible  on   he  straw,  and  af- 
terwards on  the  ear,  in  a  greater  or  less  dejrree,   according   to 
the  local  circumstances.     Let   the  field  be  ^examined  in  a  day 
''^  T  fl^r  ^"ch,,^'eather,  and  a  careful  observer  will  soon  be 
satisfiedthat  the  fibres  and  leaves  of  the  plants  are  contracted, 
and  enfeebled  m  consequence  ofwhat  may  be  called  a  stoppage 
of  perspiration.     This  disorder  may  take  place  either  earlier  or 
ia.er,  but  is  niost  fatal  when  it  appears  at  the  time  it  is  forming 
m  the  ear.    It  may  appear  at  an  earUqr  sta^e;  aud  thougS 


CtJLTURE  dF    WHEAT.  71 

tJie  productive  power  of  the  plant  will  thereby  be  lessened,  yet 
if  circumstances  are  aftoiV/ards  favorable,  the  quality  of  the 
grain  produced  may  not  be  much  impaired  ;  or  it  may  appear 
after  the  grain  is  fully  formed,  and  then  very  little  damage  will 
be  sustained,  except  by  the  straw. 

"Mildew,  again,  strictly  speaking,  may  be  ranked  as  a  dis- 
ease which  affects  the  ear,  and  is  brought  on  by  causes  similar 
to  those  which  occasion  blight,  though  at  a  more  advanced 
period  of  the  season.  If  this  disorder  comes  on  immediately 
after  the  first  appearance  of  the  ear,  the  straw  will  also  be  af- 
fected ;  but  if  the  grain  is  nearly  or  fully  formed,  then  injury 
on  the  straw  is  not  much  discernible.  We  have  seen  a  crop 
which  carried  wheat  that  was  mildewed  when  the  straw  was 
perfectly  fresh,  though  this  rarely  happens.  A  severe  mil- 
dew, however,  effectually  prevents  both  corn  and  straw  from 
making  any  further  progress  ;  the  whole  plant  apparently  go- 
ing backward  every  day,  till  existence  in  a  manner  ceases  al- 
together. Something  akin  to  mildew  is  the  gum  or  red  ochre, 
which  in  warm  moist  seasons,  attaches  itself  to  the  ear,  and 
often  occasions  considerable  damage.  All  these  different  dis- 
orders are  generally  accompanied  by  insects  ;  which  animal- 
culae,  by  many  people  who  take  the  effect  for  the  cause,  are 
considered  though  without  the  least  foundation,  as  the  authors 
of  the  mischief  that  follows.  Their  appearance,  however,  may 
justly  be  attributed  to  the  diseased  state  of  the  plant ;  for, 
wherever  putrefaction  takes  place,  either  in  animal  or  vegeta- 
ble substances,  the  presence  of  these  insects  w^ill  never  be 
wanting.  Another  aisorder  which  affects  wheat,  aid  by  sev- 
eral people  denominated  the  red  rust,  is  brought  on  by  exces- 
sive heats,  which  occasion  the  plants  to  suffer  from  a  privation 
of  nourishment,  and  become  sickly  and  feeble.  In  this  state, 
a  kind  of  dust  gathers  on  the  stalk  and  leaves  which  increases 
with  the  disease,  till  the  plant  is  in  a  great  measure  worn  out 
and  exhausted.  The  only  remedy  in  this  case  is  one  that  can- 
not be  administered  by  the  hand,  a  plentiful  supply  of  moisture, 
by  which  if  it  is  received,  before  consumption  is  too  far  advan- 
ed,  the  crop  is  benefited  in  a  degree  proportioual  to  the  ex- 
tent of  nourishment  received,  and  the  stage  at  which  the  dis- 
ease has  arrived. 

"There  is  not  the  slightest  reason  to  believe  that  parasitical 
animalculse  are  the  agents  of  these  diseases,  because  the  whole 
of  them  may  be  imputed  to  atmospherical  influence,  yet  it  is 
not  easily  ascertained  whether  excessive  drought  or  excessive 
rains  are  most  pernicious.  Perhaps  both  may  have  an  influ- 
ea©€,  as  tlie  plant  being  stinted  and  debilitated  by  drought  ii^ 


73  AeMC«LT»RAL  ESSAYS. 

the  first  instance,  is  afterwards  unable  to  bear  up  and  floiTrisfi 
when  visited  with  heavy  rains,  especially  if  these  set  in  when 
the  crop  is  in  a  critical  stage. 

"Whether  blight  and  mildew  be  considered  separately,  or 
viewed  as  one  and  the  same  disorder,  appearing  at  different  pe- 
riods of  the  plant's  growth,  we  are  convinced  that  both  may 
with  truth  be  reckoned  to  proceed  from  an  unhealthy  atmos- 
phere, when  the  crop  is  in  certain  stages  of  its  progress  to  ma- 
turity. Not  only  the  extent  but  the  very  appearance  of  blight 
and  mildew  are  entirely  governed  by  the  seasons,  and  that  with 
respect  to  wheat,  the  kind  sown,  whether  thin  or  thick  chaffed, 
has  a  very  considerable  effect  in  lessening  or  increasing  the 
effects  of  these  baneful  disorders ;  and  that  even  soil,  culture 
and  situation,  each  have  their  respective  influence.  It  seldom 
happens  that  either  blight  and  mildew  are  felt  in  dry  warm  sea- 
sons, except  i?4  close  confined  fields,  when  the  evening  dewe 
stagnate,  anl  remain  till  they  are  removed  by  the  meridian  sun. 
On  the  oJier  hand  in  every  moist  season,  whether  cold  or  warm, 
blight,  mildew  and  gum,  on  the  ear,  are  experienced  in  a  great- 
er or  lesser  degree.  In  such  seasons  thin  chaffed  wheats  ar€ 
much  less  injured  than  those  that  are  thick  chaffed,  which 
circumstance  is  in  direct  opposition  to  the  doctrine  that  blight 
mildew  and  rust,  are  brouoht  on  by  parasitical  plants  or  fungi. 

"Soil,  culture  and  situation  have  in  an  inferior  degree  an  in- 
fluence in  the  growth  and  progress  of  diseases.  Some  soils 
are  naturally  so  moist  at  bottom,  that  dampness  issues  from 
them  at  all  times.  Superior  culture  and  excessive  manuring 
are  apt  to  cause  a  crop  to  be  early  lodged,  in  nhich  case  one 
disease  or  other  is  sure  to  seize  upon  it ;  and  a  southern  as- 
pect and  every  confined  situation  are  much  more  hazardous 
than  those  of  a  northern  or  western  exposure,  and  where  the 
air  has  free  egress.  In  a  word,  when  hoar  frost  or  vapour  of 
any  kind  is  dispelled  by  wind,  no  danger  will  follow  to  the 
crop  ;  but  when  a  hot  sun  is  the  agent,  we  have  repeatedly  no- 
ticed the  most  serious  losses.* 

*  See  Encylopedia  on  diseases  of  wheat,  page,  277. 


«tjlt¥re  of  rye.  *p 

Culture  of  Rye. 

•There  is  no  difference  between  what  is  called  winter  and 
spring  rye.  Winter  rye,  by  sowing  it  later  and  later  each 
year  in  the  fall,  will  acquire  a  habit  and  quality  by  which  it 
may  at  length  be  sown  in  the  spring,  and  then  it  is  spring  rye  ; 
or  take  spring  rye  and  sow  it  very  late  in  the  fall,  and  then  a 
little  earlier  each  succeeding  year,  and  it  will  become  confirm- 
ed in  the  habit  of  winter  rye. 

One  circumstance  favourable  to  the  cultivation  of  this  kind 
of  grain  is,  that  it  will  grow  year  after  year  on  the  same  soil 
without  exhausting  it,  provided  the  stubble  be  constantly  plough- 
ed under  immediately  after  taking  off  the  crops.  Another  cir- 
cumstance peculiar  to  this  plant  is,  that  it  will  grow  very  well, 
and  produce  the  best  grain  for  bread,  on  a  thin  gravelly  soil, 
and  will  flourish  well  too  on  the  richest. 

There  is  an  instance  mentioned  in  the  Farmer's  Assistant, 
of  a  gravelly  soil  being  highly  manured  and  sowed  with  rye, 
in  which  the  rye  was  twice  successively  eaten  off  close  to  the 
ground  by  sheep  breaking  in,  after  it  had  acquired  a  height  of 
nine  inclies  the  first  time  and  six  inches  the  latter.  These 
croppings,  however,  only  served  to  make  it  grow  thic  ker  and 
stronger  than  before  ;  and  when  harvested,  it  produced  at  the 
rate  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  eight  bushels  to  the  acre. 
The  author  of  the  above  account  supposed  that  the  crop  would 
have  been  lost  by  lodging,  had  it  not  been  for  the  two  succes- 
sive croppings  of  the  sheep,  and  suggests  the  expediency  of 
trying  similar  experiments  with  wheat. 

It  has  been  remark'jd  that  winter  rye  may  be  sowed  early  in 
the  spring  and  used  as  pasture  during  the  season ;  and  that  it 
may  be  sown  at  the  usual  tune,  and  serve  for  a  sheep  pasture, 
a  while  during  the  next  spring  without  injury  to  the  crop.  It  may 
also  be'mowed  down  for  hay  two  or  three  times  during  the  sum- 
mer, when  sown  in  the  eprmg.  But  in  such  culture  the  ground 
should  have  much  more  seed  than  the  usual  allowance,which  for 
early  sowing  in  the  fall  is  about  a  bushel  to  the  acre,  or  a 
bushel  and  a  half  for  later  sowing.  Spring  rye  it  is  believed 
should  have  this  latter  allowance,  and  be  sowed  as  early  as 
the  ground  can  be  well  prepared. 

Rye,  when  it  is  intended  for  family  use,  should,  if  the  weath- 
er will  admit,  be  harvested  even  as  early  as  when  the  rye  is 
yet  in  the  milk,  and  left  to  lie  on  the  ground  for  some  days  to 
dry  and  harden.  By  such  management  the  grain  will  make  a.-> 
much  whiter  flour. .  though  perhaps  not  quite  as  heavy  as 
when  it  stands  till  it  is  fully  rip©. 
G 


74  AORICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

When""  rye  is  sown  successively  on  the  same  soil,  the  stub- 
ble should  be  ploughed  under  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  taken  off, 
which  helps  to  improve  the  ground  and  serves  to  destroy  the 
seeds  of  weeds.  It  should  then  lie  until  about  the  first  of 
September,  then  ploughed  again,  and  the  next  crop  harrowed 
in.  Some  have  supposed  that  m  this  way  the  crops  will  in- 
crease in  quantity. 

Rye  is  subject  to  a  distemper  called  the  spur.  The  grains, 
which  are  affected  with  it,  are  larger  than  the  rest,  mostly 
crooked,  bitter  to  the  taste,  projecting  beyond  their  husks, 
dark  coloured,  rough,  and  deeply  furrowed  from  end  to  end. 
This  kind  of  diseased  grain  sometimes  proves  very  destructive 
to  those  who  eat  it.  In  some  parts  of  France,  where  the  dis- 
ease prevails  most,  the  peasants  who  eat  it  are  liable  to  be  at- 
tacked with  a  dry  gangrene  in  the  extreme  parts  of  the  body, 
which  causes  those  parts  to  fall  off,  almost  without  pain.  "The 
Hotel  Dieu  at  Orleans,"  says  Duhamel,  "has  had  many  of 
these  miserable  objects  who  had  not  any  thing  more  remaining 
than  the  bare  trunk  of  the  body,  and  yet  lived  in  that  condi- 
tion for  several  days."  It  is  not  every  year  that  the  spur  pro- 
duces these  effects,  and  it  is  said  that  if  the  grain  be  kept  a 
certain  time  before  it  is  eaten  it  will  not  be  hurtful.  It  is 
thought  however,  that  no  very  bad  effects  have  been  known 
in  this  country  from  eating  this  kind  of  rye. 

When  we  consider  that  rye  fiour  mixed  with  corn  meal 
makes  a  wholesome  and  valuable  bread,  and  can  be  raised  on 
light  soils,  which  under'  some  circumstances  may  be  de- 
voted to  that  crop  better  than  to  any  other,  and  when  it  is 
considered,  too,  that  it  is  not  an  exhausting  crop,  the  raising  it 
cannot  be  considered  an  unimportant  article  of  domestic  econ- 
omy. 

Rye  should  never  be  sown  on  wet  soils,  nor  even  upon  sandy 
soils,  when  the  subsoil  is  retentive  of  moisture. 

Upon  all  soft  lands  which  have  received  manure,  this  grain 
thrives  in  perfection,  and  if  once  covered,  it  is  believed,  it  will 
stand  a  drought  afterwards  that  would  consume  any  of  the 
culmiferpus  tribe. 

Where  it  is  sown  for  pasture,  as  has  been  mentioned,  it 
should,  after  having  been  fed,  be  suffered  to  grow  up  to  a  con- 
siderable green  crop,  before  it  is  turned  under  with  the  plough,^ 
and  with  such  culture  it  may  be  considered  a  certain  means  of 
improving  the  soil,  not  only  for  another  crop  of  rye,  but  for  any 
other  crop,  which  is  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 


CtlLTtfRE    OF    1^'DIA^    CORN, 


Culture  or   Lvdian  Corn. 


75 


This  plant  is  believed  to  be  a  native  of  America,  and  is  well 
adapted  to  every  part  of  the  country,  that  has  hitherto  been  ex- 
plored. This  grain  presents  at  this  time  a  great  number  of  va- 
rieties, which  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  color 
and  size  of  the  grain  ;  by  the  number  of  rows  on  the  cob  ;  by 
the  leno-th  of  time  they  respectively  take  m  ripening,  and  by 
the  detn-ee  of  hardness  acquired  by  them.  Some  are  white, 
and  others  black;  some  are  yellow,  and  others  are  brown,  or 
red,  or  violet.  Some  have  cobs  twelve  inches  long,  studed  with 
twelve  rows  of  large  grains ;  while  others  have  only  six  rows, 
or  a  cob  three  inches  long,  and  covered  with  grains  even  smal- 
ler than  pepper  corns.  Some  again  are  five  months  m  ripen- 
ing, while  others  are  soft,  and  even  succulent,  and  cannot  long 
be  preserved,  but  by  means  of  artificial  heat.  The  small,  trom 
its  ripening  soon,  and  the  soft,  from  its  greater  tenderness,  are 
most  valuable  in  garden  culture,  and  least  valuable  in  com- 
merce. It  is  thought  no  one  of  these  varieties  car.  ce  said 
much  to  excel  all  tlie  others,  because  the  difference  in  climate, 
soil,  and  culture,  may,  and  probably  has  differently  affected  the 
growtii  and  produce  cf  the  different  varieties. 

A  change  of  seed  with  this  grain,  as  with  others,  is  expedi- 
ent, and  it'is  said  that  a  change  of  seeds  grown  in  different 
soils  is  better  ;  and  that  changes  ought  to  be  from  east  to  west, 
or  from  west  to  east,  and  not  from  north  to  south,  or  from  south 
to  north.  Where  the  crop  is  raised  on  low  grounds,  which  are 
subject  to  early  frosts,  the  seed  should  be  brought  from  the 
northward,  that  it  may  ripen  before  the  frosts.  It  is  believed 
that  the  longest  ears  and  largest  grains  will  yield  the  most. 

It  has  been  observed  by  a  respectable  farmer  that  he  had 
found  his  crop  of  corn  consideiably  increased  by  procuring  iiis 
seed  from  different  parts  of  the  country,  and  mixing  it. 

With  respect  to  the  proper  time  for  planting  Indian  corn,  no 
invariable  rule  can  be  given ;  the  farmer  has  to  take  into  con- 
sideralion  the  peculiarities  of  the  season  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, as  also  the  climate,  and  calculate  as  correctly  as  he  can, 
so  as  to  give  the  crop  time  to  ripen  before  it  is  exposed  to  the 
frosts.  From  the  1.5th  of  May  to  the  1st  of  June,  varying  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  of  season  and  climate,  arQ  the  most  usual  times 
throughout  New-England.* 

*  For  other  remarks  respecting  the  efficacy  and  application  of 
manures  proper  for  this  plant,  see  essay  on  manures. 


76 


ASRieVLTVnXh    ESSATSi 


An  opinion  has  heretofore  prevailed,  that  corn  is  a  very  ex- 
hausting crop,  much  more  so  than  potatoes.  Tliis  is  denied  by 
some  distinguished  modern  agriculturalists,  especially  by  Doct. 
Elliot,  called  the  father  of  New-England  husbandry.  In  his 
Essays  on  Field  Husbandry,  published  in  1747,  he  remarks, 
that  "the  larger  the  crop  of  corn,  the  better  the  succeeding 
erop;  which  is  contrary  to  the  fact  from- which  the  knowledge 
of  an  exhausting  crop  is  usually  derived. 

Respecting  the  great  value  of  this  plant,  it  has  been  observ- 
ed by  an  eminent  agriculturalist,*  that  "if  the  theory  which  sup- 
poses that  plants  extract  most  or  all  their  matter  from  the  at- 
mosphere, and  that  the  whole  wf  this  matter  is  manure,  be  true, 
then  that  plant  which  produces  most  vegetable  offal  must  be 
the  most  improving  crop ;  and  it  will  hardly  be  denied  that  In- 
dian corn  19  entitled  to  this  preeminence ;  compared  with 
Wheat,  suppose  the  same  land  to  produce  as  much  grain  of  the 
one  as  the  other,  which  in  its  use  will  make  equal  returns  to 
the  earth.  Here  the  equality  ends,  if  indeed  it  exists  even  in 
this  point.  The  corn  stalks  exceed  the  wheat  stalks  in  bulk 
weight,  and  a  ?apacit^  for  making  food  for  the  earth.  If  any 
one  who  converts  both  his  stalks  and  straw  into  manure,  will 
compare  their  product  in  April,  when  he  may  distinguish  one 
from  the  other,  he  will  find  in  the  former  a  vast  superiorhy  in 
quantity.  The  English  fiirmers  consider  wheat  straw  as  their 
most  abundant  resource  for  manure,  and  corn  stalks  are  far 
more  abundaot :  corn,  therefore,  is  a  less  impoverishing,  be- 
cause more  compensating  crop  to  the  earth,  credited  onTy  for 
its  stalks,  than  any  in  England.  In  comparing  crops,  to  ascer- 
tain their  relative  product  and  operation  on  the  earth,  we  must 
compare  farinacious  crops  with  each  other ;  and  consider  the 
litter  and  ofFal  th6y  produce,  not  as  wasted,  but  as  judiciously 
applied  to  the  compensation  of  the  land.  Corn  produces  a  re- 
turn, from  the  same  land,  of  more  offal  or  litter,  in  its  stalks  a- 
lone,  than  wheat  does  altogether.  But  to  the  stalks  of  corn,  its 
blades,  tops,  husks,  and  cobs,  remain  to  be  added,  each  of  which 
will  nearly  balance  the  litter  bestowed  on  the  land  bv  the 
wheat."  ..  ^ 

The  celebrated  Arthur  Young,  in  his  travels  through  France, 
in  1789,  makes  the  following  remarks  respecting  Indian  corn ; 
Perhaps,  says  he,  it  is  the  most  important  plant  that  can  be  in- 
troduced into  the  agriculture  of  any  country,  whose  climate 
will  suit  it.  For  the  inhabitants  of  a  country  to  live  upon  that 
plant  which  is  the  preparation  for  wheat,  and  at  the  same  time 

*■  Col.  John  Taylor,  of  Virgiaia; 


CtJLTURE  OF  INDIAN  CORN.  77' 

Iteep  their  cattle  fat  upon  the  leaves  of  it,  is  a  treasure  for' 
which  they  are  indebted  to  their  climate."  Planted  in  squares 
or  rows,  so  far  asunder  that  all  imaginable  tillage  may  be  giv- 
en between  them,  and  the  ground  thus  cleared  and  prepared 
at-the  will  of  the  farmer,  is  an  invaluable  circumstance  ;  and 
finally  it  is  succeeded  by  wheat.  A  country,  whose  soil  and 
climate  admit  the  course  of,  1st,  maize,  (corn,)  2d,  wheat,  is  un- 
der a  cultivation  that  perhaps  yields  the  most  food  for  man  and 
beast,  that  is  possible  to  be  drawn  from  the  land." 

The  proper  soils  for  this  grain,  are  thought  to  be  the  sandy, 
sandy  loam,  gravelly  loam,  and  rich  red  and  dark  colored  earths, 
which  have  not  much  clay  in  them.  Stiff  clays  are  very  unfit 
for  this  crop;  and  cold  and  wet  loams  are  not  much  better,  un- 
less well  managed. 

There  has  been  much  diversity  of  opinion  among  farmers  re- 
specting the  best  manner  of  distributing  the  seed,  so  as  to  draw 
from  the  soil  the  greatest  portion  of  food;  and  to  equalize  the 
apportionment  of  the  soil,  so  as  to  produce  the  greatest  crop. 

A  Mr.  Stephens,  near  New- York,  who  raised  on  three  acres 
at  the  rate  of  118  bushels  to  the  acre,  planted  his  seed  in  double 
rows,  about  eight  inches  apart,  and  the  seeds  were  set  diago- 
nally, the  same  distance  from  each  other.  Between  these  dou- 
ble rows,  he  left  a  space  of  five  and  half  feet.  A  Mr.  Ludlow,, 
in  the  same  vicinity,  who  produced  at  the  rate  of  98  bushels  to^ 
the  acre,  on  three  acres,  planted  his  seed  in  single  rows,  which 
were  four  feet  apart,  with  the  grains  set  eight  inches  asunder. 
A  very  extraordinary  crop  was  raised  in  Massachusetts,  by 
planting  the  rows  two  feet  apart,  in  which  the  grain  was  plant- 
ed in  hills  the  same  distance  from  each  other,  and  two  grains 
in  each  hill.  This  latter  mode  produced  112  bushels  to  the  a- 
ere.  In  all  these  experiments  an  abundance  of  good  manure 
was  applied.  As  all  these  mode^  of  distributing  the  seed  were 
somewhat  different  from  that  heretofore  most  generally  prac- 
ticed throughout  New-England,  their  successful  result  should 
remind  the  farmer,  that  it  may  often  be  expedient  to  examine 
the  correctness  of  practices  which  may  owe  their  origin  to  im- 
memorial usage. 

It  should  be  remarked,  that  as  this  crop  requires  that  the 
plants  should  be  separated  so  that  they  can  be  kept  clear  of 
weeds  by  the  plough  and  hoe,  and  hilled  too,  for  the  purpose  of 
advancing  its  growth  as  well  as  to  prevent  its  breaking  down 
by  the  wind,  the  seed  should  be  so  distributed  as  to  answer 
these  purposes  ;  and  at  the  same  time,  the  grains  should  be  so 
far  separated  from  each  other,  as  to  admit  the  salutary  influen- 
ces from  the  eun  and  atmospheric  air.    It  will  be  noticed  that 


78  AGRICULTURAL  ESSAtS. 

in  the  above  experiments,  except  the  last,  the  grains  were  plac- 
ed eight  inches  from  each  other ;  and  in  the  last,  only  two,  in- 
stead of  four  or  five,  (the  usual  number)  were  placed  in  the 
same  hill.  Those  who  have  planted  in  rows,  and  separated  the 
grams,  as  in  the  two  first  mentioned  experiments,  have  thought 
that  about  one  sixth  more  can  be  raise<i  on  an  acre,  other  cir- 
cumstances being  equal. 

Those  farmers  who  may  adopt  the  mode  of  plantmgin  rows, 
will  find  their  account  in  using  a  light  drill  plough,  that  may 
be  easily  made  for  the  purpose.  One  of  this  description  may 
be  drawn  by  hand,  and  so  contrived  as  to  make  a  small  furrow 
about  two  inches  deep,  drop  the  seed  at  proper  distances  into 
the  furrow,  and  cover  the  seeds,  all  in  one  operation.  This 
method,  however,  is  only  practicable  on  ground  entirely  clear 
of  stones.  When  every  part  of  the  soil  is  not  sufficiently  fertile 
to  secure  a  crop,  the  method  of  placing  the  manure  m  the  hillv 
or  row,  where  the  grain  is  deposited,  is,  doubtless,  correct. 


Culture  of  Oats. 

There  is,  perhaps,  no  crop,  to  the  cultivation  of  which  less 
attention  is  paid,  than  to  that  of  oats  ;  and  perhaps  the  reason 
which  would  often  be  assigned  for  this  negligence,  is,  that  the 
crop,  when  raised,  is  of  small  comparative  value  with  other 
crops  of  grain.  But  this  is  believed  to  be  an  error.  For, 
where  there  is  any  tolerable  mode  of  culture  and  preparing- 
the  ground,  considering  the  usual  market  price,  the  crop  ought 
to  be  good,  to  make  it  an  object  for  the  farmer  to  raise  them : 
and  it  is  a  mistaken  notion  that  they  will  do  well  with  indiffer- 
©nt  culture. 

To  raise  a  good  crop  of  oats,  the  ground  should  be  in  good 
heart,  and  well  prepared.  Weeds,  which  are  often  permitted 
to  grow  among  this  grain,  are  very  prejudicial. 

The  culture  of  oats  should  be  encouraged,  where  the  gene- 
ral use  of  horses,  and  the  improvement  of  their  breed,  is  an  ob- 
ject, as  it  will  always  be  in  the  United  States.  For,  oats  may 
be  considered  their  best  food,  particularly  when  travelling,  as 
they  are  of  a  loosening  nature,  while  most  other  grains  which 
ve  given  to  them,  are  binding. 


Culture  of  oats.^  70 

in  Great  Britain,  they  have  many  varieties  of  this  grain, 
among  which  are  the  oat  in  most  common  use  here.  "The 
Angus  oat  is  there  considered  an  improved  variety  of  the  other ; 
the  Poland  oat,  the  Triesland  oat,  the  red  oat,  the  dun  ©at,  the 
Tartar,  or  Siberian  oat,  and  the  potato  oat.  The  Poland  and 
potato  varieties  are  best  adapted  to  rich  soils  ;  the  red  oat  for 
late  climates  ;  and  the  other  varieties,  for  the  generality  of 
soils,  of  which  the  British  isles  are  composed.  The  Tartar, 
or  Siberian  kind,  though  very  hard  and  prolific,  is  much  out  of 
use,  being  of  a  coarse  substance,  and  unproductive  of  meal ; 
and  the  other  kinds  are,  it  appears,  now  principally  superceded 
by  the  potato  oats,  which  are  considered  by  the  most  discern- 
ing agriculturists,  as  of  superior  value,  in  every  respect,  Vvhen 
the  soil  is  rich  and  properly  cultivated." 

This  variety  has,  it  is  said,  in  some  respects  degenerated, 
owing  to  the  farina  of  other  oats  having  communicated  with  it. 
it  should  be  remarked  that  oats  will  always  degenerate  from 
this  cause,  as  well  as  from  bad  culture,  and  when  this  happens, 
the  farmer  should  renovate  them  by  procuring  pure  seed  from 
others,  when  it  can  be  had,  and  if  it  cannot,  it  w^ould  be  better 
to  make  a  selection  of  the  strongest  ears,  wliich  contained  the 
purest  grain  for  seed,  than  to  sow  that  which  is  light  and  im- 
pure. 

From  twelve  to  eighteen  pecks  of  seed  is  generally  allowed 
to  the  acre,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  soil,  and  the  vari- 
ety that  is  cultivated.* 

It  is  affirmed  that  land  sown  with  potato  oats,  requires  much 
less  seed,  in  point  of  measure,  than  when  any  of  the  other  sorts 
are  used  ;  because  they  tiller  well,  much  better  than  Poland 
oats,  and  have  not  an  awn,  or  tail,  like  the  ordinary  varieties* 
On  that  account  a  measure  contains  many  more  seeds  of  them 
than  of  any  other  kind.f 

*  A  less  quantity  of  seed  is  perhaps  generally  applied  by  our 
farmers;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  crop  is  often  lessened  by  too 
thin  sowin*.  If  the  farmer  understands  the  general  principles 
■which  relate  to  the  g-ermination  of  seeds,  he  can  safely  exercise 
his  discretion  in  assigning  the  quantity. 

tThis  seed  perhaps  may  have  been  improved  from  the  oats  in 
most  common  use  in  the  United  States  ;  for  there  is  no  doubt  but 
that  this  seed,  as  well  as  all  othess,  may  be  greatly  improved  by 
selecting  the  largest  grains,  and  which  contain  the  most  meal, 
and  cultivating  them  bo  as  to  keep  them  clear  from  weeds  and 
light  impure  seed.  But  if  we  would  procure  the  best  varieties  ef 
seeds,  of  domestic  and  foreign  growth,  by  purchase,  we  may  find 


80  Aeitic^ii'roRAi.  essays. 

A  moist  soil  is  favorable  to  oats  ;  they  sliould  therefore  be 
sown  as  early  as  the  season  will  admit  of,  to  avoid  the  injurious 
effects  of  the  drought,  which  sometimes  greatly  injures  this 
crop  before  it  comes  to  maturity. 

It  has  been  found  that  gypsum  will  greatly  increase  this  crop, 
if  the  soil  be  suitable  for  this  kind  of  manure.  It  is  the  opin- 
ion of  some  respectable  practical  farmers,  that  the  next  crop  to 
be  sown  after  spring  wheat  and  rye,  should  be  oats  ;  and  that 
it  grows  well  on  hills,  or  even  mountains,  where  the  soil  is- 
ioam,  underlayed  by  hard  pan. 

When  the  condition  of  a  farm  is  such,  that  the  farmer  can- 
not procure  a  sufficient  supply  of-  hay  for  the  support  of  his 
stock,  without  procuring  it  from  l^is  tillage  ground,  the  expe- 
dient of  raising  a  crop  of  oats  for  that  purpose,  has  often  beeii' 
practised  with  success ;  but  when  oats  are  sown  for  that  pur- 
pose, a  much  larger  quantity  of  seed  should  be  sown,  and  the 
crop  harvested  after  the  oats  liave  headed,  and  while  the  straw 
is  green.  This  grain,  as  well  as  spring  and  winter  rye,  may 
be  substituted  for  some  of  the  artificial  grasses,  which  are  of-- 
ten.  raised  for  such  purposes,  on  dry  tillage  lands.^ 


Culture  of  Flax. 

The  raising  of  flax  requires  so  much  labor,  and  at  the  same 
time  is  so  impoverishing  to  the  soil,  that  it  can  hardly  be  thought 
an  object  in  the  United  States  to  make  a  business  of  growing, 
more  of  it  than  may  be  necessary  for  domestic  uses. 

The  same  soil,  it  is  thought  by  many  good  farmers,  should 
not  be  sown  with  flax  oftener  than  once  in  seven  years. 

It  has  been  the  practice  of  the  New-England  farmers  gene- 
rally, to  prepare  their  ground  for  flax  by  previous  hoed  crops, 
which  have  been  well  manured.  And  this  practice  may  be 
relied  on  for  success,  perhaps  as  well  as  any,  especially  when 

them  in  moat  of  our  largfe  cities,  particularly  in  New- York  and 
Albany,  where  they  are  kept  by  seed  merchants,  who  make  it 
their  object  to  keep  for  sale  the  best  kinds  and  varieties  of  set'ds 
f»r  culture. 

♦  See  e»iay  on  artificial  grasses. 


eCri^TURE    OF    FiAX,  81 

the  hoeing  has  been  thoroughly  attended  to,  so  as  effectually  to 
destroy  the  weeds,  which  are  fatal  to  the  growth  of  flax. 

It  has  been  remarked  above,  that  flax  is  an  exhausting  crop. 
But  as  I  have  found  a  difierent  opinion  communicated  to  the 
Philadelphia  Agricultural  Society,  I  think  it  merits  too  much 
consideration  not  to  be  noticed,  while  on  this  subject. 

The  author  observes,  that  he  cultivated  flax  and  potatoes  in 
the  same  field  ;  each  crop  having  an  equal  quantity  of  manure  ; 
that  in  gathering  an  excellent  crop  of  flax  in  July,  the  ground 
was  immediately  ploughed,  and  sov/ed  with  turnips  ;  and  pro* 
duced  one  hundred  bushels  of  good  turnips  per  acre  ;  on  re- 
moving the  crops  of  potatoes  and^turnips,  about  the  middle  of 
October,  the  ground  was  put  into  wheat ;  and  that  the  wheat 
on  the  flax  and  turnip  ground,  was  fully  equal,  if  not  superior, 
to  the  wheat  on  the  potato  ground.  The  same  author  ob- 
serves, that  the  Irish,  who  for  many  years,  have  had  great  ex- 
perience in  the  cultivation  of  this  valuable  plant,  generally 
raised  it  on  ground  manured  and  planted  with  potatoes  the 
preceding  year.  They  sow  on  such  ground  three  or  four 
bushels  of  the  best  American  seed  to  the  acre.  Hence  a  query 
may  be  suggested,  whether  the  fineness  of  the  Irish  flax  may 
not  be  owing  to  this  thick  sowing,  rather  than  to  their  flax  be- 
ing pulled  before  it  is  fully  ripe.  It  is  said  that  the  Flemings 
nev-er  pull  the  flax  intended  for  their  fine  cambrics  and  linen, 
until  the  seed  is  ripe. 

The  quality  of  the  flax  may  also  depend  very  much  on  the 
future  operations  of  rotting,  breaking,  and  dressing. 

In  America,  flax  is  for  the  most  part  rotted,  by  being  laid 
thni  on  a  grass  field.  The  time  required  in  this  operation  de- 
pends on  the  dryness  or  wetness,  heat  or  cold,  of  the  season. 
Flax  is  judged  to  be  sufficiently  grassed,  when  its  bark  is  a  lit- 
tle blistered  towards  the  extremityof  the  plant,  and  when  it  parts 
easily  from  the  seed,  which  at  this  time  becomes  very  brittle. 

The  same  author  farther  observes,  thit  he  had  exposed  flax 
m  the  months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  and  that  he 
had  always  found  it  rotted  in  August  the  best ;  and  that  some 
farmers  of  experience  had  observed,  that  the  injury  which  the 
flax  is  thought  to  receive  by  the  heat  of  the  mid-summer  sun, 
is  by  no  means  equal  to  the  benefit  it  receives  by  being  ouick- 
ly  maturated.  When  flax  is  exposed  in  a  variety  of  weather 
in  a  cold  season,  the  putrefaction  necessary  to  loosen  and  de- 
stroy the  cohesion  of  the  fibres  of  the  flax  from  the  seed,  is  SQ 
tedious  as  frequently  to  injure  the  fibres  themselves. 
^  The  process  of  water  rotting  flax,  is  almost  wholly  practised 
m  Ireland.    One  motiiod  of  water  rotting  practised  in  soim 


i^2  IfcMCULTrRAL    ESSAYS. 

parts  of  our  country,  is  to  bind  it  up  in  small  sheaves,  laid 
length  ways  across  tlie  stream,  and  sunk  completely  under  ; 
about  five  days  are  generally  requisite  for  this  purpose.  When 
Rufficiently  rotted  in  this  way,  a  small  handful  may  be  pulled 
asunder  with  a  little  exertion  ;  and  then  should  be  taken  out 
very  carefully,  so  as  not  to  injure  the  coat,  and  dried.  The 
water  in  which  it  is  rotted,  should  not  run  rapidly,  as  such  will 
wash  away  the  coat.  If  rotted  in  standing  water,  it  should  be 
turned  once  while  it  is  rotting.  It  is  essential  that  flax  should 
have  a  proper  degree  of  rotting.  If  rotted  too  much,  its 
strength  is  impaired  for  present  use,  and  it  wastes  more  in 
cleaning  ;  and  if  rotted  too  little,  a  great  addition  of  labor  is  re- 
quisite in  fitting  it  for  use.  That  which  is  coarse  will  rot 
quicker  than  that  which  is  fine  ;  it  would  therefore  be  better, 
when  practicable,  that  these  should  be  kept  separate  while 
rotting,  in  order  that  the  latter  may  have  longer  thne  for  this 
purpose. 

The  short  ana  the  long  should  also  be  sorted,  as  it  is  incon- 
venient to  have  them  mixed  in  dressing.  It  is  of  importance 
that  the  seed  should  be  sown  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  to 
effect  this,  it  is  best  to  sow  one  half  of  the  seed  over  the  whole 
ground,  and  then  the  other  half  cross  wise,  and  sown  when 
there  is  no  air  in  motion. 

Salt  is  said  to  be  one  of  the  most  valuable  manures  for  flax. 
In  one  experiment  by  Richard  Peters,  Esq.  of  Philadelphia,  it 
appears  that,  by  sowing  about  twice  the  quantity  of  foul  salt  to 
that  of  flax  seed,  he  had  from  three  acres,  fifty  bushels  of  ex- 
cellent seed,  and  a  great  crop  of  flax.  From  extensive  exper- 
iments of  this  kind  of  manure,  it  is  well  ascertained  that  salt, 
as  a  manure  for  flax,  should  be  applied,  when  it  can  be  procur- 
ed at  any  reasonable  expsnsc. 

It  is  attested  by  some  respectable  farmers,  that  they  have 
always  succeeded  in  raising  a  crop  of  flax,  by  soaking  the  seed 
about  half  an  hour  if^  weak  lye,  or  in  strong  lye  diluted  with 
six  times  as  much  water,  and  just  as  the  seed  is  coming  up,  to 
sow  on  it  two  or  three  bushels  of  strong  ashes  per  acre  ;  and 
that  if  it  is  taken  wet  from  the  lye  and  rolled  in  plaster,  it  is 
better. 

No  crop  is  thought  to  be  better  than  potatoes  to  precede  9, 
crop  of  flax. 

Notwithstanding  the  weight  of  authorities  to  the  contrary, 
many  farmers  are  of  the  opinion  that  flax  is  better  if  pulled  a 
little  before  the  seed  is  ripe ;  they  say  the  seed  will  ripen,  in 
the  swarth,  if  it  is  plump  and  full  grown  before  the  flax  i§. 
pulled    • 


etLTtJRE    OF    HEMP,  8S 

Culture  of  Hemp. 

Some  farmers,  well  informed  in  the  business  of  practical  ag- 
riculture, arc  of  the  opinion  that  hemp  may  ultimately  become 
one  of  the  most  important  and  valuable  exports  from  the  interi- 
or of  New-England,  as  well  as  the  western  and  southern  States; 
and  that  it  is  as  natural  and  valuable  a  staple,  and  every  way 
adapted  to  our  climate  and  soil,  as  cotton  is  to  the  climate  and 
soil  of  the  south.  Some  of  them  say  that  it  will  produce  more 
pounds  to  the  acre  than  cotton,  and  with  much  less  manual  la- 
bor ;  and  will  command  in  market,  if  properly  prepared  and 
handled,  a  price  as  great  as  the  short  stapled  cottons,  by  the 
pound.  And  to  induce  our  northern  farmers  to  engage  in  it,  it 
has  been  observed,  that  before  the  introduction  of  cotton  into 
the  interior  of  the  Carolinas  and  of  Georgia,  corn  and  provi- 
sions were,  as  tliey  now  are  among  us,  a  mere  drug,  utterly  un- 
convertable  into  cash,  even  at  a  very  low  price  :  and  that  as 
the  introduction  of  cotton  there  raised  the  demand  and  the 
price,  and  made  a  ready  market  for  grain,  so  that  of  raising 
hemp  may  in  New-England  and  the  western  States. 

Could  the  introduction  of  hemp  become  the  means  of  divert- 
ing, in  some  measure,  the  market  of  rye  and  corn  from  the  dis- 
tilleries, those  engines  of  corruption,  disease  and  misery,  it  cer- 
tainly would  be  a  valuable  improvement  to  the  condition  of  our 
country. 

We  now  purchase  great  quantities  of  Russian  hemp  at  enor- 
mous prices,  for  the  calls  of  our  commerce  and  naval  establish- 
ments, because  we  have  not,  it  is  said,  sufficient  that  is  fit  for 
use. 

Our  surplus  rye  and  corn  now  go  to  the  retailing  merchant, 
a  great  proportion  of  it,  and  from  the  merchant  to  the  distiller. 
But  if  hemp  were  introduced  as  one  of  the  staples  of  our  agri- 
cultural system,  the  growers  of  it  would  be  in  a  condition  to 
purchase  much  of  the  grain  ^vhich  is  now  sold  for  foreign  mer- 
chandize, and  to  pay  cash  for  it,  which  would  better  promote 
the  interest  of  those  who  cultivate  it. 

As  the  culture  of  this  plant  has  not  been  much  attended  to  in 
the  northern  States,  the  following  remarks,  by  a  writer  who  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  practical  farmer,  are  worthy  of  consider- 
ation :  "This  plant  flourishes  most  in  a  mellow,  dry  soil,*  and 
the  richer  the  better.     It  affords  little  or  no  profit  on  lands  of 

*  The  editors  of  the  Agfricultural  Encyclopedia,  howerer,  say 
that  the  soils  most  suited  to  the  culture  of  this  plant,  are  those  of 
the   deep,  black,  putrid,  rogetablo  kind,  that  are  low,  and  rather 


84  A»RI8C1TURAL     ES3ATS. 

ordinary  fertility.  In  soils  naturally  adapted  to  its  cultnre,  •» 
in  those  sufficiently  manured,  it  is  one  of  the  surest  and  most 
profitable  crops,  as  the  plant  is  subject  to  no  disease,  nor  is  it  lia- 
ble to  be  annoyed  by  any  insect.  Droughts  do  not  sensibly  affect 
its  s^rowth,  and  it  is  in  no  danger  of  being  destroyed  by  cattle. 

From  two  to  three  bushels  of  seed  are  requisite  to  the  acre, 
proportioned  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  as  in  other  crops. 

The  seed  must  be  of  the  year  next  preceding,  as  it  quickly 
loses  its  germinative  powers. 

A  ton  of  hemp  when  dressed,  may  be  raised  from  two  acres 
of  land,  of  the  highest  fertility. 

It  is  believed  that  in  this  crop,  as  in  almost  every  other,  ma- 
terial benefit  is  to  be  derived  from  soaking  the  seed,  in  a  solu- 
tion, not  too  strong,  of  common  salt,  or  salt  petre,  or  in  a  mod- 
erate lye  of  wood  ashes,  and  then  rolling  the  seed  in  gypsum, 
before  sowing.  The  application  of  gypsum,  as  manure,  af- 
ter the  seed  is  sown,  is  also  beneficial,  if  the  soil  is  suitable. 

The  ground  should  be  harrowed  before  the  seed  is  sown,  as 
by  that  means  the  seed  may  be  sov;n  of  a  more  even  depth,  that 
it  may  all  start  together  ;  otherwise  a  part  of  the  plants  will 
outgrow  and  keep  down  the  rest. 

It  should  be  sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  can 
be  put  in  proper  order,  and  sufficiently  dry.  In  ordinary  sea- 
sons in  New-England,  it  will  be  ripe  for  harvest  about  the  first 
of  August,  the  time  for  harvesting  being  indicated  by  the  fal- 
ling of  the  flow^ers,  and  the  withering  of  the  leaves. 

The  male  plants  of  hemp  bear  the  flowers,  and  the  female 
plants  the  seed.  A  sufficiency  of  the  latter  are  to  be  left  for 
seed,  and  those  will  require  about  six  weeks  further  time  to  ri- 
pen, the  ripeness  being  known  by  the  seed  turning  brown. 

The  seeds  may  be  gently  beat  off  the  stalks  wlien  dried,  or 
they  may  be  taken  off  by  a  coarse  comb,  made  for  the  purpose. 

It  is  said  the  female  hemp  which  has  stood  to  ripen  the  seeds, 
requires  a  longer  time  to  rot,  than  the  male,  and  when  dressed 
is  jharsher.  It  has  been  advised  to  sow  some  hemp  thinly  by 
itself  for  seed,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  crop  may  be  all  pulled 
or  cut  together.  In  grounds  that  are  smooth  the  crop  is  cut 
close  to  the  earth,  by  a  kind  of  scythe,  made  for  the  purpose. 
The  usual  practice,  however,  is  to  pull  it  in  the  manner  of  pul- 
ling flax. 

inclined  to  moisture,  as  well  as  those  of  the  deep,  itk.IIow,  loamy 
or  sandy  descriptions  ;  and  that  the  qMantity  of  produce  is  g^ener- 
ally  much  sfreater  oo  the  former  than  on  the  latter,  but  it  is  said  to 
be  greatly  inferior  Id  quality. 


CULTURE    OF    HKaXP.  85 

When  it  is  sufficiently  dried,  which  in  good  weather  will  he  in 
about  one  week,  it  is  to  be  gathered  in  bundles,  bound  with  in 
straw,  and  then  carefully  stacked  up  so  as  to  be  kept  in  a  dry 
situation. 

Many  farmers  practice  rotting  it  in  the  winter,  by  spreading 
it  on  the  snow,  in  the  early  part  of  winter,  so  that  by  being  cov- 
ered with  other  snows,  it  will  be  bleached  and  improved  in  its 
color.  When  the  snows  dissolve  in  March,  it  will  be  found  suf- 
ficiently rotted. 

When  sufficiently  dry,  it  should  be  first  broken  with  a  coarse 
break,  and  then  with  the  common  flax  break  ;  and  dressed  in 
the  manner  of  flax,  but  more  gently,  as  it  will  waste  with  hard 
beating. 

The  crop  may  also  be  rotted  in  the  fall,  in  a  manner  similar 
to  that  of  rottmg  flax  ;  or,  it  may  be  water-rotted  like  that  crop. 
When  water-rotted,  the  hemp  should  be  sunk  completely  un- 
der the  water ;  and  if  it  be  stagnant,  the  hemp  should  be  turn- 
ed upside  down,  when  about  half  rotted,  otherwise,  from  the 
greater  degree  of  heat  on  the  surface  of  such  waters  than  be- 
low, the  upper  part  will  be  rotted  before  the  under. 

By  water  or  winter  rotting  the  coat  of  the  hemp  blackens  much 
less  than  when  rotted  in  the  fall ;  and  itis  observed,that  the  warn> 
er  the  weather,  or  the  earlier  in  the  fall  the  crop  is  rotted,  the 
blacker  the  coat  will  be,  as  is  the  case  also  with  regard  to  flax. 

The  crop  of  hemp  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  it  is  fit  for 
the  purpose ;  otherwise  the  male  stalks  will  soon  wither  and 
blacken,  after  which  the  coat  is  of  little  value. 

Hemp  may  be  made  a  substitute  for  flax,  for  all  common  pur- 
poses. But  in  that  case  it  is  said  it  must  be  softened  by  steam- 
ing it  over  boiling  water  or  lye,  and  beating  it  after  it  is  dried 
again. 

An  excellent  crop  of  wheat  has  been  taken  after  a  crop  of 
hemp,  and  with  very  little  expence. 

The  policy  of  introducing  any  new  crop,  to  constitute  a  sta- 
ple for  market,  should  be  adopted  with  caution.  It  has  been  re- 
marked, that  it  might  raise  the  price  of  grain,  as  did  the  intro- 
duction of  cotton  in  the  southern  States  ;  but  is  it  certain  that  a 
ready  market  and  high  price  for  grain,  are  indicative  of  the 
most  prosperous  condition  of  a  country  ?  It  is  not  certain  that 
a  majority  of  the  citizens  ofany  country  would  always  be  ready 
to  give  an  affirmative  answer  to  this  question.  The  [rreat ques- 
tion respecting  the  policy  of  raising  our  own  hemp  for  commer- 
cial and  naval  purposes,  rather  than  purchase  it  of  foreianers, 
must  depend  on  the  effect  it  would  have  on  the  price  of  Labor. 
A  very  large  portion  of  our  citizens,  who  constitute  an  impor- 
H 


86  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

tantpart  of  the  physical  strength  of  our  country,  purchase  their 
bread  corn,  for  which  they  have  to  pay  in  their  services  only. 
The  price  of  those  services  is  not  always  enhanced  in  propor- 
tion to  that  of  grain  or  butchery's  meat.  It  should  be  a  predom- 
inent  object  in  the  policy  of  our  country,  not  to  attempt  the  ad- 
vancement of  its  general  interests  by  'means,  which,  in  their 
•peration,  tend  to  depress  the  condition  of  the  poorer  class  of 
«itizens. 


Culture  qf  Turnips. 

The  culture  of  the  turnip  has,  in  England,  been  long  con- 
sidered a  profitable  part  of  field  husbandry,  though  it  has  been 
in  some  degree  superceded  by  that  of  carrots,  which  has  been 
thought  more  profitable. 

The  raising  of  turnips  is  there  considered  not  only  an  impor- 
tant object  for  the  purposes  of  winter  food  for  cattle,  but  also  to 
improve  and  prepare  the  soil  for  other  crops.  It  is  said  by  the 
greatest  authorities  on  English  agriculture,  that  the  introduc- 
tion of  turnips  into  the  husbandry  of  Great  Britain,  occasioned 
one  of  those  revolutions  in  the  rural  art,  which  are  constantly 
occurring  among  husbandmen ;  and  though  the  revolution  came 
on  with  slow  and  gradual  steps,  yet  it  may  now  be  viewed  as 
completely  established. 

There  are  tkree  kinds  of  turnips :  the  flat  or  round  sort, 
which  are  in  most  common  use  in  this  country  ;  also,  the  long 
and  French  turnip.  Of  the  former,  there  are  the  green  topped, 
the  red  purple,  the  yellow,  and  the  early  Dutch  turnip.  The 
last  are  sown  early  in  the  spring,  for  a  supply  of  the  market 
during  the  summer  season.  The  green  topped  are  considered 
the  most  profitable,  and  are  raised  for  winter  use.  For  raising 
them  on  a  small  scale,  the  following  method  has  been  found  to 
succeed  well :  Turn  over  a  turf  of  old  sward  the  first  week  in 
June.  Yard  cattle  on  this,  in  the  proportion  of  six  head  at  least, 
to  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  until  the  20th  of  July ;  then  harrow 
lengthwise  of  the  furrows,  so  as  not  to  disturb  or  overturn  them, 
and  sow  in  the  proportion  of  about  half  a  pound  of  seed  to  the 
acre.  If  not  convenient  to  yard  cattle  upon  it  suflSciently,  a- 
bout  two  inches  of  well  rotted  manure,  harrowed  in  as  abovCi 
win  do  for  a  a.ubstitute. 


CULTURE    OF    TURNIPS.  ,  Wt 

Some  farmers  who  have  made  the  culture  of  turnips  an  im- 
portant branch  of  field  husbandry  in  this  country,  give  a  decid- 
ed preference  to  the  drill  husbandry  in  their  cultivation.  One 
farmer  in  the  state  of  New- York,  who  has  succeeded  in  raising 
vast  quantities  of  this  root,  has  practiced  the  following  mode : 
After  the  manure  is  spread  on  the  surface,  to  plough  it  in  about 
the  12th  of  June,  and  then  to  harrow  it  smooth.  After  this  ie 
done  to  plough  it  into  ridges,  about  30  inches  apart,  and  not 
wider  than  three  feet ;  and  then  to  sow  on  the  ridges  with  a 
drill  harrow ;  and  as  soon  as  the  turnips  are  in  the  rough  leaf, 
to  separate  them  v/ith  hoes  to  about  the  distance  of  from  four  to 
eight  inches,  according"  to  the  species  of  the  turnip,  the  larger 
sort  requiring  more  room  to  spread;  (killing  at  the  same  time 
all  the  weeds  on  the  top  of  the  ridges."  When  the  turnips  have 
become  well  fixed  again,  as  many  must  be  loosened  in  this  op- 
eratioD,  and  the  sides  of  those  ridges  covered  with  weeds,  to 
introduce  a  small  plough,  and  take  a  slice  from  both  sides  of 
every  ridge  close  to  the  turnips  ;  these  slices  of  course  fall  into 
the  farrow,  carrying  the  weeds  which  grew  on  their  sides.  A 
day  or  two  after,  another  plough,  w4th  a  double  mould  board,  is 
introduced  into  the  furrow,  and  sweeps  back  the  mould  to  its 
place.  This  operation  may  be  repeated  as  often  as  weeds  ap^ 
pear;  but  if  it  is  effectually  done  once,  it  will  not  be  wanted  a- 
gain. 

This  farmer,  *  in  the  year  1822,  when  he  gave  this  account, 
raised  of  the  Swedish  turnip,  or  ruta  baga,  on  one  acre,  one 
thousand  and  ninety-six  bushels;  and  of  the  white  globe  tur- 
nip, on  an  acre,  eleven  hundred  and  forty-three  bushels  ;  f  and 
he  observes,  that  no  crop  can  be  more  valuable  than  turnips. 
The  thinning  and  weeding  process,  mentioned  above,  is  consid- 
ered an  essential  measure  in  the  culture  of  turnips  ;  and  one 
would  suppose  the  prejudices  which  may  exist  against  it,  on 
account  of  the  extraordinary  labor  it  requires,  should  be  re- 
moved, froai  the  consideration  of  the  value  of  the  erop  which  it 
produces.  Another  objection  to  making  the  culture  of  turnips 
an  important  object,  may  arise  from  the  expence  of  harvesting 
and  storing  an  article  which  requires  so  much  room  secure  from 
frost.  As  the  manner  in  which  sa  greai  a  crop  is  secured, 
seems  to  be  connected  with  its  utility,  it  may  be  interesting  to 
state  the  manner  in  which  this  crop  was  harvested  and  secured, 
taken  from  the  farmer's  own  account,   who  raised  the  crop, 

*Mr.  Fealherstonau^h,  of  Duanesburg;,  State  New- York, 
t  Upwards  of  two  thousand  bushels  to  the  acre  have  been  krIs- 
od  in  Great  Britain, 


^S  AGRICULTURAL  ESSAYS. 

Six  men  were  directed  to  take  each  a  row,  draw  the  turnios, 
strike  off  the  long  thin  tap  root  and  the  soil  with  it,  with  a  knife 
made  out  of  old  scythes,  and  throw  them  into  one  row,  with 
their  bottoms  to  the  ground  ;  and  keeping  their  tops  as  free  from 
dirt  as  possible.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  were  drawn  for 
the  day,  the  parties,  six  men,  went  back  to  their  drawn  rows, 
took  up  the  turnips,  and  struck  off  the  leafy  tops  into  small  con- 
fenient  heaps,  dropping  the  bulbs  on  the  ground,  which  were 
taken  up  as.d  carried  in  carts  and  sleds  to  cellars  near  the  sheep 
to  ds  containmg  about  500  bushels  each.  When  these  were 
mi,  long  square  pits  were  prepared  on  dry  knolls,  in  the  fields, 
about  a  foot  deep,  and  the  turnips  piled  up  in  each,  to  the  num- 
ber perhaps,  of  three  hundred  bushels.  Straw  was  put  over 
them,  and  subsequently  a  foot  deep  of  earth,  making  this  cov- 
ering somewhat  thicker  to  the  north-west;  this  he  found  by 
experience  to  be  a  sufficient  covering,  having  taken  them  out 
in  the  month  of  May,  perfectly  sound.  The  tops  were  fed  out 
constantly  to  horned  cattle,  as  long  as  they  lasted.  The  hand- 
somest turnips  with  the  smallest  necks  and  tops,  were  selected 
tbr  seed,  without  cutting  the  roots,  and  only  a  part  of  the  top<! 
and  then  secured  by  themselves.  These  are  planted  out  in  dry 
mellow,  and  rich  ground,  on  the  first  opening  of  the  spring, 
a  foot  apart,  and  kept  perfectly  clean.  The  seed  when  ripe,  is 
gathered  early  in  the  morning,  while  the  dew  is  on  the  pods, 
and  before  they  split  open.  • 

This  crop,  it  is  said,  without  exhausting  the  soil,  prepares  it 
as  well  as  any  other,  for  wheat  or  for  grass.  Where  the  soil 
IS  suitable  for  turnips,  and  the  sheep  husbandry  is  an  object  of 
much  attention  to  the  farmer,  the  raising  them  for  feeding  to 
sheep  as  well  as  cattle  has  been  found  greatly  efficacious,  and 
an  important  improvement  in  the  system  of  agriculture.  The 
following  specific  against  the  fly  or  little  black  flea,  which  are 
so  destructive  to  the  young  turnip  plant  in  warm  dry  weather, 
should  be  here  noticed  in  addition  to  what,  has  been  suc-o-ested 
on  that  subject,  under  the  essay  on  insects.  °° 

Steep  the  seed  in  train  or  fish  oil  and  sulphur,  from  15  to  20 
hours  before  seeding  ;  the  oil  may  then  be  strained  off,  and  the 
seed  rolled  in  plaster  or  ashes.  The  oil  assists  the  vegetation 
of  the  seed,  and  impregnates  the  plant  so  strongly,  that  no  fly 
will  trouble  it,  till  it  is  well  leafed  out. 

Two,  perhaps  the  greatest,  difficulties  to  encounter  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  turnip,  are  the  fly  and  the  worm.  The  for- 
mer makes  its  attacks  between  the  time  of  shooting  out  of  the 
earth  and  the  expansion  of  the  seed  leaf;  the  latter,  from  the 
tap??  of  becommj^  a  bulb  until  it  is  at  maturity.     T©  counteract 


CULTURE   OF   TURNIP^r  C» 

the  former,  in  addition  to  what  has  been  said,  it  may  be  observ- 
ed, that  tke  first  stage  of  vegetation  should  b»  forced,  by  sow- 
ing the  seed  immediately  on  the  manure,  and  then  top-dressm^ 
with  lime,  plaster,  or  ashes.  The  latter  are  repulsed  m  a  great 
measure,  by  means  of  the  hoe,  by  which  the  superfluous  plants 
are  thinned  out,  and  the  earth  taken  from  those  left  for  the 
crop,  leaving  the  tap  root  only  in  the  earth.  By  givmg  the  full 
force  of  the  manure  immediately  to  the  seed,  the  rough  leaf  is 
thrown  out  so  rapidly,  that  the  fly  has  little  chance  to  operate  ; 
and  by  taking  the  earth  from  the  bulbs,  the  worm  cannot  find 
means  to  attack  it.  It  is  said  the  best  time  to  put  in  the  seeo  © 
immediately  after  a  shower,  and  that  the  seed  should  follow  m:- 
mediately  the  spreading  of  the  manure,  in  the  drills,  so  that  it 
may  not  have  a  chance  to  evaporate  or  cool.  From  three  pints 
to  two  quarts  of  seed  has  been  thought  to  be  a  suitable  quanti- 
ty for  an  acre.  . 

In  cold  climates,  the  securing  of  turnips  from  frost  during  the 
winter,  where  large  quantities  are  raised,  may  be  thought  aa 
objection  to  the  cultivation  of  this  plant.  But  those  farmers 
who  have  made  it  an  important  object  to  feed  neat  cattle  and 
sheep  with  them,  through  the  winter  months,  think  the  provid- 
ing proper  cellars  for  the  storing  them,  a  necessary  item  in  the 
expence  of  a  good  system  of  husbandry.* 

If  the  farmer  will  compare  the  quantity  of  essential  aliment 
contained  in  turnips,  with  that  of  good  hay,  which  may  be  rais- 
ed on  an  acre,  he  will  be  better  enabled  to  form  a  correct  opin- 
ion respecting  their  relative  value,  and  respecting  the  expedi- 
ency of  bestowing  the  extraordinary  expence,  necessary  to  cul- 
tivate the  former  to  advantage.  Sixteen  hundred  bushels, 
which  is  not  the  most  abundant  crop  known  to  have  been  raised 
on  an  acre,  are  estin^ated  at  about  forty-seven  tons.  But  let  one 
third  of  that  quantity,  or  about  five  hundred  bushels,  be  con- 
sidered an  ordinary  crop,  equal  to  about  fifteen  tons ;  an  or- 
dinary crop  of  hay,  say  at  about  two  tons,  which  is  however,  a 
large  average  estimate  ;  and  then  compare  the  relative  value 
and  expence  of  the  two  crops. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  this  root  should  be  made  a  substitute 
for  hay,  or  other  dry  food,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  proved 
from  the  actual  experiments  of  the  best  farmers  in  our  coiin.ry, 
a  very  important  auxilary  in  the  raising  and  improving  the  bree4 
of  our  neat  cattle  and  sheep. 

*  See  essays  on  neat  cattle  and  sheep. 

H  ^ 


5*0  Jl«RIC»LTURAL   KS3AY3; 

Potato. 

The  culture  of  this  root,  although  a  native  of  America,  has^ 
sot  been  sufficiently  improved,  except  in  the  vicinity  of  our 
large  cities.  To  improve  the  quantity  as  well  as  the  quality 
of  the  crop,  particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  seed. 
Potatoes  planted  several  years  from  the  same  seed,  will  greatly 
degenerate,  and  produce  little  or  nothing.  One  method  to 
obtain  new  and  various  kinds  of  potatoes,  is,  to  raise  the' seed 
from  that  which  is  contained  in  the  apples.  For  this  purpose, 
the  apples  should  be  gathered  after  the  seeds  are  fully  ripe, 
and  mashed  together  in  some  water  until  the  pulp  is  washed 
away  and  separated  from  the  seeds.  Then  dry  them,  and  the 
next  spring  sow  them  in  a  bed,  and  keep  them  clear  from 
weeds  until  the  young  plants  acquire  their  growth.  The  po- 
tatoes thus  laised,  of  the  first  year's  growth,  it  is  said,  will  be 
small ;  they  should  then  be  sorted,  and  the  next  year  planted, 
each  kind  by  itself,  and  the  products  will  be  full  grown,  or 
mearly  so.  It  will  be  found  that  some  of  the  new  sorts  produc- 
ed in  this  way,  will  excel  in  size  and  in  the  amount  of  the  pro- 
duct ;  and  others,  also,  will  excel  in  dryness  and  superiority  of 
taste.  In  this  way  the  farmer  can  accommodate  himself  with 
such  as  are  best  for  the  table,  and  such  as  are  more  suitable 
for  feeding  swine,  &c.  A  great  diversity  of  opinion  has  pre- 
vailed respecting  the  size  and  condition  of  the  potato  best  for 
seed  ;  wJiether  large  or  small ;  or  whether  large  ones  cut  in 
pieces  are  not  equally  productive.  But  it  is  believed  that  no 
general  and  invariable  rule  can  be  adopted  respecting  this 
matter,  from  w^hich  circumstances  may  not  render  it  expedient 
to  vary.  From  some  cause,  which  perhaps  it  would  be  useless 
to  explain,  were  it  even  possible,  crops  e^ally  good  have  been 
raised  from  seed  in  either  condition.  The  large  whole  potato 
miight  how^ever  be  considered  preferable  upon  a  dry  soil,  for 
the  following  reason  :  the  outside  skin  of  the  potato,  called  the 
(Siuticle,  is  the  most  durable  part,  and  seems  to  retain  the  mois- 
fcure  for  the  use  of  the  plant,  till  it  is  all  exhausted  ;  and  when 
potatoes  are  cut  for  planting,  the  nutritive  juice  is  in  a  great 
measure  absorbed  by  the  earth.  The  opinion  that  the  whole 
potato  is  not  so  good,  on  account  of  bringing  the  plants  too 
fear  together,  appears  to  be  erroneous,  when  it  is  considered 
that  in  the  progress  of  vegetation,  the  roots  spread  in  every 
direction  in  quest  of  nourishment ;  and  if  that  food  which  is 
necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  plant,  is  properly  located  con- 
tiguous to  the  soil  of  which  the  hill  is  composed,  the  plant  will 
spread  until  it  comei  ia  contact  with  it,  and  absorbs  it,  and  fills 


CtTLTtTRE    OF    POTATOES.  91 

the  hill.  But  for  a  moist  and  weak  soil,  the  seed  potato  may  be 
cut,  and  thereby  the  crop  increased  from  the  same  weight  of 
seed  ;  for  on  such  a  soil  tiie  moisture  furnished  trora  the  whole 
potato  is  not  wanted  ;  and  as  the  nutritive  qualities  in  such  a 
soil  are  more  scattered,  the  roots  ot  the  plant  will  be  more 
likely  to  come  in  contact  with  it,  and  derive  nourishment  from 
it,  than  if  placed  only  in  one  particular  point  in  the  hill.  For 
this  reason  too,  it  would  seem  to  be  more  profitable  to  plant 
small  potatoes  in  a  moist  soil  than  in  a  dry  one. 

The  Irish,  who  perhaps  raise  and  use  more  potatoes  than  any- 
other  people,  it  is  said,  generally  cut  their  potatoes,  and  set 
them  about  ten  inches  apart  The  practice,  however,  might 
have  originated  from  tlie  necessity  of  using  a  part  of  the  pota- 
to for  food.  Circumstances  may  render  that  a  sufficient  rea- 
son here  also. 

Potatoes  should  be  hoed  when  first  up,  just  to  clean  out  the 
weeds,  with  but  little  hilling,  and  when  they  are  about  seven 
inches  high,  should  be  hilled  up  for  the  last  time.  The  hilling 
them  up  by  a  third  hoeing  may  be  rather  injurious  than  other- 
wise. If  weeds  spring  up  so  as  to  render  a  third  hoeing  necessa- 
ry, they  had  better  be  pulled  from  the  hill  and  cut  up  round  it 
with  the  hoe,  without  enlarging  the  hill.  It  is  an  error  to  suppose, 
that  it  increases  the  crop  of  potatoes  by  enlarging  the  hill,  in 
any  instance  where  sufficient  manure  is  deposited  in  or  near 
the  hill.  By  reference  to  the  principles  of  vegetation,  it  will 
be  found,  that  if  the  influence  of  light  and  atmospheric  air  are 
too  far  removed  from  the  root  by  too  deep  burying,  the  less 
vigorous  the  plant  and  root.  It  is  said  that  potatoes  may  be  rais- 
ed by  covering  them  over  with  straw,  when  only  laid  on  a  clean 
sward,  to  the  depth  of  about  eight  inches  ;  and  that  in  this  con- 
dition tney  have  been  found  to  grow  nearly  as  large  as  if  buri- 
ed in  the  ground,  and  to  be  drier  and  better  flavored. 

To  get  the  greatest  product  of  potatoes  from  a  given  quantity 
of  ground,  ihe  most  approved  practice  appears  to  be  that  of 
planting  in  rows,  instead  of  hills.  The  following  method  has 
been  extensively  practised  with  success.  After  the  ground  is 
suitably  prepared,  to  run  very  liaht  furrows  at  the  distance  of 
about  three,  or  three  and  a  half  ^et  apart :  to  drop  the  potatoes 
along  the  furrows  at  the  distance  of  about  eighteen  inches 
apart,  and  to  cover  them  with  a  light  furrow  run  along  on  one 
side,  or  with  the  hoe  ;  when  the  plants  have  grown  to  the 
height  of  six  or  eififht  inches,  run  the  plough  along  on  each 
side  of  the  rows  as  close  as  possible  without  injuring  the  plants, ' 
turning  the  furrow  from  them,  then  immediately  turn  the  fur- 
row back  10  them,andtlius  the  soil  becomes  sufficiently  meUowed 


^•i  AOm  CULT  URAL    ESS  ATS. 

to  keep  up  a  due  degree  of  fermentation  about  the  K)ot8.  Thig^ 
process  to  be  repeated  sol  ong  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  may 
require  it,  to  keep  the  weeds  down,  till  the  tops  become  so 
large  as  to  prevent  them.  This  mode  of  culture  in  rows,  it 
will  be  seen,  will  better  admit  the  plough  as  a  substitute  for  the 
hoe,  and  thereby  save  much  time  and  labor. 

When  potatoes  are  planted  in  rows  or  in  hills,  before  the  po- 
tatoes are  taken  out  of  the  ground,  the  tops  should  be  first  pul- 
led and  laid  in  heaps  to  be  carried  off  for  manure.  Tf  this  is 
not  done,  they  should  be  covered  over  with  dirt,  as  the  prac- 
tice of  some  is ;  and  the  soil  thereby  becomes  gi  eatly  fertilized, 
and  prepared  to  rieceive  the  seed  for  winter  grain.  When  this 
latter  mode  is  practised,  if  the  seed  of  another  crop  is  immedi- 
ately to  follow,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  tops  should  not 
be  disturbed  with  the  teeth  of  the  harrow. 

When  the  farmer  has  not  sufficient  manure  to  fertilize  every 
part  of  the  soil,  it  is  a  good  practice  to  place  it  in  the  holes  of 
rows,  with  the  potatoes,  the  better  to  secure  its  efficacy  for  the 
present  crop. 

The  editors  of  the  Agricultural  Encyclopedia,  have  observed 
that  a  new  variety  of  potato  may  be  propagated  at  any  time 
by  mixing  different  kinds  in  the  same  hill  or  furrow,  and  that 
if  these  are  allowed  to  come  to  maturity,  a  kind  of  connection 
takes  place  betwixt  the  blossoms  of  each,  which  produces  a 
new  race,  or  variety.  In  this  way,  they  say  the  numerous  va- 
rieties of  the  potato  root  now  prevailing  in  Britain,  have  been 
procreated  and  introduced. 

This  mode  of  acquiring  new  varieties  is  worth  the  attention 
of  the  American  farmer,  as  we  have  not  yet  many  of  those  va- 
rieties in  general  use,  some  of  which  may  possess  qualities  of 
superior  excellence  and  profit  to  any  which  are  commonly 
cultivated. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  leading  and  prevailing  variety  has  been 
the  yellow  kidney,  which,  though  it  is  not  the  most  productive, 
it  is  thought  to  be  the  most  delicious  potato  that  is  cultivated. 

The  black  potato  is  the  next  favorite,  though  it  should  bf 
remarked  that  this  kind,  being  rarely  taken-  up  in  a  ripe  state, 
is  not  fit  for  use  till  the  spring  monthsy  when  it  acquires  a  close- 
ness of  texture  and  mellowness  which  it  does  not  possess  ata». 
earlier  period.  The  common  red  potato  is  probably  a  branch 
of  this  breed,  as  it  appears  to  have  the  same  qualities  last  de- 
scribed. 

There  has  been  found  to  have  been  sixty  varieties'  of  thi»  i 
vegetable,  a  particular  description  of  which  will  not  comport 
with  the  limits  of  this  work.    But  it  is  hoped  our  farm/>r«  win 


CULTURE    OF    HOPS.  9S 

by  one  or  other  of  the  means  which  have  been  mentioned,  soon 
have  all  the  varieties  which  may  be  adapted  to  different  soils 
and  uses. 

As  the  practice  of  sowing  the  land  with  wheat  next  after  a 
crop  of  potatoes,  is  so  important  to  the  interest  of  the  farmer,  it 
may  be  expected  it  will  become  a  part  of  our  geneiral  system. 
In  addition,  th-arefore,  to  what  has  been  remarked  respecting 
the  depositing  of  the  potato  tops  for  manure,  the  following  prac- 
ticable mode  has  been  found  very  efficacious. 

Before  the  digging  is  commenced,  run  a  deep  furrow  near 
the  row,  turning  the  soil  from  them,  deposit  the  tops  in  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow  ;  dig  the  potatoes,  and  then  by  turning  a 
back  furrow,  the  tops  may  be  covered  a  sufficient  depth  to  es- 
cape the  teeth  of  the  harrow.  After  the  potatoes  are  dug,  a 
single  furrow  on  the  row  will  be  sufficient  to  prepare  the 
ground  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  The  vines  placed  in  this 
condition  will  affiard  a  good  supply  of  excellent  manure,  and 
although  it  may  not  be  so  equally  dieUibuted  to  every  part  of 
the  soil  by  this  operation,  yet  the  preference  of  this  mode  of 
securing  the  whole  benefit  of  the  manure,  will  more  than  com- 
pensate for  this  defect  in  its  distribution.  But  w^hen  wheat  is 
to  follow  the  potato  crop,  the  soil  should  have  been  rendered 
sufficiently  fertile  in  the  cultivation  of  that  crop.  The  teeth  of 
the  harrow,  in  harrowing  in  the  wheat,  should  be  guaged,  as 
may  be  necessary  in  many  other  uses  of  it,  by  putting  them 
through  pieces  of  slit  work,  or  plank,  laid  on'the  top  of  the 
harrow,  with  holes  for  the  teeth,  that  they  may  thereby  be  pre- 
vented from  running  so  deep  as  to  disturb  the  vines  which  are 
buried. 

The  practice  of  leaving  potato  vines  on  the  field  without  be- 
ing buried,  whether  wheat  is  to  follow  Ihe  potato  crop  or  not, 
is  slovenly,  bad  husbandry,  a  wanton  v/aste  of  manure,  and 
ought  to  be  exploded  by  all  who  would  sustcdn  the  reputatioR 
«f  good  farmers. 


Culture  of  Hops. 

This  plant  requires  a  rich  mellow  soil,  which  should  be  pre- 
pared by  digging  or  deep  ploughing.  "When  a  piece  of 
land  is  intended  to  be  planted,  the  first  thing  is  to  plough  Ihe 


94  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

land  as  deep  as  possible  in  October,  and  to  harrow  it  level : 
it  is  then  marked  each  way  with  a  four  rod  chain,  placing  pie- 
ces of  wood  or  stick  at  every  tenth  link,  to  mark  the  place  of 
the  hills,  which  make  1000  per  acre.  This  is  the  general  meth- 
od :  but  some  few  grounds  are  planted  800,  and  some  1200  per 
acre  ;  some  are  planted  wider  one  way  than  the  other  in  order 
to  admit  the  ploughing  between  the  hills,  instead  of  digging, 
But  this  practice,  although  it  hasbeen  tried  many  years,  does 
not  seem  to  increase  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  digging 
along  the  rows,  where  the  plough  cannot  go  ;  that  ipart  being 
much  trodden  with  the  horses  in  ploughing,  digs  so  much  the 
worse  that  an  extra  expense  is  incurred,  which  in  some  mea- 
sure defeats  the  economy  of  the  plan.  When  the  hills  are 
marked  out,  holes  are  dug  about  the  size  of  a  gallon,  which 
are  filled  with  fine  mould,  and  the  nursery  plants  placed  in 
them. 

Some  put  three  plants,  others  two,  and  some  only  one  good 
plant  to  each  hole.  If  the  land  is  planted  with  cuttings,  in- 
stead of  nursery  plants,  the  holes  are  dug  in  the  spring,  as 
soon  as  cutting  time  commences.  Some  fine  mould  is  provided 
to  fill  up  the  holeSjinwhich  are  placed  four  or  five  cuttings  each  a- 
bout  three  or  four  inches  in  length.  They  are  covered  about  an 
inch  deep  with  fine  mould,  and  pressed  down  close  with  the 
hand.  When  the  land  is  planted  with  cuttings,  no  sticks  are 
required,  but  if  nursery  plaats  are  used  they  require  sticks,  or 
small  poles,  six  or  seven  feet  high  the  first  year.  In  both 
cases  the  land  is  kept  clear  during  the  'summer  by  horse  and 
hand  hoeing  ;  the  next  winter  dug  with  a  spade  ;  and  early  in 
the  spring  the  old  binds  are  cut  off*  smooth,  about  an  inch  be- 
low the  surface  ;  a  little  fine  mould  is  then  drawn  over  the 
crow.i  of  the  hills.  As  soon  as  the  young  shoots  appear,  so  that 
the  hills  may  be  seen,  they  are  stuck  with  small  poles,  from 
seven  to  ten  feet  long,  in  proportion  to  the  length  it  is  expect- 
ed the  vine  will  run."  *  It  is  said  the  poles  should  never  be 
too  long,  ELS  the  vines  never  begin  to  bear  much  till  they  have 
got  to  the  ends  of  the  poles  ;  that  poles  often  feet  are  long 
enough  for  the  first  year  ;  after  that  they  are  to  be  longer  ac- 
cording to  the  strength  of  the  ground,  but  never  so  long  as 
that  the  vines  cannot  go  somewhat  beyond  their  tops.  When 
the  vine  gets  about  two  feet  in  length,  it  is  the  practice  of 
some  to  tie  them  to  the  pole. 

The  proper  time  for  gathering  them  is  known  by  the  hop 
tubbmg  freely  to  pieces,  and  the  seed    beginning  to  turn- 

•  See  Encylopedia,  t.  1,  p.  302, 


t"»LTURE    OF    HOPS. 


S5 


brown  ;  about  tlie  first  of  September  is  the  time  generally  in 
New-England.  If  gathered  later,  the  vines  will  bear  more  the 
next  year,  but  the  present  crop  will  not  be  quite  as  good. 
When  the  poles  are  drawn  to  be  picked,  it  is  advised  to  cut 
the  vmes  asunder  three  or  four  inches  from  the  giound,  for  cut- 
ting lower  while  they  are  green,  weakens  the  root  by  too 
great  a  flow  of  sap.  When  large  crops  are  raised,  the  best 
way  to  dry  them  is  on  kilns  ;  but  they  may  be  dried  on  floors 
ui?der  cover,  or  in  the  sun,  though  it  is  said  they  will  not  be 
so  well  flavored  as  when  kiln  dried.  When  kiln  dried,  the 
fire  should  be  kept  on  a  ii.oderate  heat,  foi-  if  it  steams  the  hop 
brown  it  will  be  injured.  They  should  lie  about  six  inches 
thick  and  be  frequently  stirred  v.iiile  drying.  The  seeds  will 
crackle  a  little  when  bursting,  and  then  if  the  hops  have  been 
equally  exposed  to  the  heat  hey  are  all  sutficiently  dried. 

Before  they  are  put  into  bags  they  should  be  laid  in  heaps 
three  or  lour  days,  to  sweat  and  grow  tough.  Those  vrho 
raise  them  for  market,  should  procure  bags  of  coarse  linen 
doth  about  eleven  feet  long  and  about  two  and  a  half  yards  in 
circumference,  which  rhould  contain  about  250  lbs.  of  hops. 

The  best  poles  are  those  which  are  most  durable.  Each 
pole  should  have  thiee  vines  and  all  above  this  should  be  brok- 
en off'in  the  spring.  Mr.  Young  is  of  the  opinion  that  a  hop 
garden  will  last  almost  forever  by  renewing  the  hills  that  now 
and  then  fail  ;  but  that  the  better  way  is,  ^7  grub  it  up  and 
new  plant  it  once  in  about  twenty  five  years.  VThe  seed  of  the 
hop  is  found  to  be  the  strongest  part,  and  care  should  therefore 
be  taken  that  they  are  gathered  so  soon  that  these  will  not 
fall  out  while  gathering. 

The  long  white  hop  is  preferred,  but  care  should  be  taken 
that  they  are  all  of  one  kind,  for  of  difterent  sorts  some  may 
ripen  quicker  than  others.  When  bog  meadows  are  w'ell 
drained,  hops  will  grow  well  on  them.  The  culture  of  hops, 
where  proper  attention  has  been  paid  to  it,  has  been  found  to 
be  very  profitable  ;  at  the  prices  tlicy  have  commanded  in  this 
country,  an  acre  of  them  has  produced  from  two  to  three  hun- 
dred dollars,  and  the  whole  expence  per  acre  for  raising  them 
cannot  be  supposed  in  any  instance,  to  exceed  one  hundred 
dollars  ;  and  they  have  always  been  found  a  profitable  article 
for  exportation.  Rut  very  considerable  quantities  are  wanted 
for  our  breweries  at  home  ;  and  they  are  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, as  a  necessary  article  in  the  beer  made  for  domestic 
uses,  wiiich  is  an  excellent  beverage,  and  a  fine  substitute  for 
cider. 


^6  A»RieULTHRAL      ESSAYS. 

CWLTITRE    OF    ARTIFICIAL    GrASSES. 

The  term  artificial  grasses,  has  been  defined  to  imply  a  se- 
lection  from  the  promiscuous  family,  and  a  culture,  by  human 
art,  of  the  kinds  best  adapted  to  the  soil  and  climate  of  the 
country,  in  preference  to  a  reliance  upon  the  grasses  produced 
naturally.  The  great  value  of  this  selection  is  illustrated  by 
the  contrast  between  the  crab  of  the  wilderness  and  the  culti- 
vated pippin  of  the  orchard;  or  by  a  comparison  between  the 
esculents  of  the  garden  and  those  of  spontaneous  production. 

It  is  remarked  by  John  Taylor,  of  Caroline,  in  a  paper  com- 
municated to  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Virginia,  that  an  im- 
provement of  the  soil  by  the  culture  of  artificial  grasses,  arises 
from  the  vegetable  matter  of  both  root  and  top,  when  ungrazed  ; 
from  the  former  when  grazed  ;  from  protecting  the  grounds  a- 
gainst  heat  in  summer,  and  cold  in  winter  ^from  producing 
food  to  create  animal  manure ;  from  rendering  the  ground  fit 
to  bear  deeper  ploughing,  by  reason  of  the  mass  of  vegetable 
matter  minglea  with  it,that  it  can  bear  in  a  naked  state,by  which 
its  soil  is  deepened ;  and  from  saving  four-fifths  of  the  farm 
from  the  hoof  and  the  tooth,  by  making  one  fifth  far  more  ade- 
quate to  supply  the  demand  for  grass,  than  the  whole  without 
such  cultivation. 

The  artificiul  grasses  enable  the  farmer  to  raise  meats  of  all 
kinds,  for  his  G,^7n  use  and  for  the  market,  of  the  best  quality, 
in  the  cheapest  modes,  and  to  increase  the  size  of  all  animals 
destined  to  slaughter  or  labor.  By  a  skilful  management  of  ar- 
tificial grasses,  the  manure  they  cause  domestic  animals  to  pro- 
duce, will  more  than  repay  in'the  improvement  of  the  soil  and 
increase  of  crops,  the  expence  of  their  maintenance.  Men 
chiefly  subsist  upon  grain  and  meat ;  brutes  upon  grass,  grain, 
or  dry  hay.  The  difference  between  th^  expence  t)f  cultivat- 
ing an  acre  of  grain,  and  one  of  grass,  is  inconsiderable;  and 
yet  the  latter  will  raise  far  more  meat,  butter,  tallow,  leather, 
and  wool.  Grass  being  the  basis  of  food  in  the  case  of  stocks, 
as  bread  stuff*  is  for  man,  that  mode  of  obtaining  it  which  pro- 
duces the  most  and  best,*:  with  the  least  injury  to  the  land,  and 
from  the  smallest  space,  is' entitled  to  the  preference. 

The  artificial  grasses,  also,  produce  considerable  profit  by 
saving  labor. 

But  the  greatest  benefit  from  the  cultivation  of  artificial 
grasses,  arises  from  their  exclusive  capacity  to  make  high  land 
meadows.  The  expense  of  clearing  and  draining  the  latter, 
will  generally  exceed  that  of  manuring  the  former ;  yet  th« 
draining  i«  considered  every  v/here  as  highly  profitable  and 


CULTURE    OF    ARTIFICIAL    GRASSES.  1*7 

aseful.  The  comparative  expense  between  that  and  making^ 
high  land  grass,  is  not  materially  affected  by  the  probable  com- 
parative profit.  A  good  spring  crop  of  high  land  grass,  is 
more  common  in  our  climate,  than  of  low  land,  and  is  not  expos- 
ed to  inundation.  A  pound  of  high  land  grass,  green  or  dry, 
generally  contains  as  much  nutriment  as  two  of  low  land.  It  is 
more  easily  made  into  good  hay.  And  high  land  grasses  pos- 
sess the  great  exclusive  value  of  enriching  the  high  and  dry 
land  on  which  they  are  sown.  These  considerations  disclose 
items  of  profit,  resulting  from  the  culture  of  artificial  grasses, 
which,  when  united,  warrant  the  conclusion,  that  it  is  capable 
of  rendering  a  great  proportion  of  our  high,  dry,  and  hilly  land 
as  valuable  as  reclaimed  meadow  land. 

After  these  general  remarks  respecting  the  utility  of  artifi- 
cial grasses,  it  is  necessary,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  a  cor- 
rect opinion  on  this  subject,  to  take  a  view  of  the  several  kinds 
which  have  been  cultivated  in  Great  Britain,  and  some  parts  of 
the  United  States,  together  with  the  mode  of  culture,  and  soil 
most  suitable  to  them,  respectively. 

The  science  on  this  subject,  as  it  may  be  applicable  to  our 
country,  has  been  well  digested  in  a  work  lately  published,  en- 
titled the  Farmer's  Assistant,  a  compendium  of  which  shall  be 
here  inserted. 

LucERN,  {Medicass  Saliva).  This  grass  is  very  highly  es- 
teemed for  soiling,  though  it  makes  good  hay  if  cut  quite  green. 
Mr.  Livingston,  of  New- York,  has  made  considerable  trials  of 
it  in  that  State,  and  the  products  have,  in  some  instances,  been 
greater  than  those  mentioned  by  British  writers.  With  the 
best  cultivation  and  plentiful  manuring,  from  six  to  nine  tons  of 
hay,  per  acre,  may  be  had  in  a  season,  of  this  grass.  Twenty 
pounds  3f  seed  are  requisite  for  an  acre,  if  sown  in  the  broad 
cast,  or  six  pounds  if  drilled.  If  cultivated  in  the  latter  way, 
it  is  to  be  ploughed  and  hand  hoed  three  or  four  time^in  the 
season :  but  perhaps  the  broad  cast  is  the  more  profitable, 
when  labor  is  high.  Mr.  Young  recommends  sowing  it  with 
oats  ;  first  sowing  and  harrowing  in  that  gjain,  and  then  sow- 
ing or  drilling  in  the  lucern,  and  covering  it  lightly  with  a 
light  harrow.  Others,  however,  advise  that  the  ground  be 
previously  well  prepared  by  deep,  frequent,  and  effectual 
ploughings ;  and  that  the  seed  be  sown  by  itself.  And  as  it  it 
essential  that  the  ground  be  well  seeded,  perhaps  this  is  the 
best  way.  Mr.  Livingston  sowed  it  in  the  fore  part  of  Septem- 
iber,  after  a  crop  of  early  potatoes,  and  found  it  to  answer  very 
jwcll,  if  the  ground  be  prepared  for  it  by  summer  fallowing 
!«<,  tiiia  time.    The  essential  points  in  preparing  the  ground  are 


'OS  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS, 

firsUo  manure  it  well,  and  then  to  have  it  frequently  and  deep- 
ly ploughed,  and  well  cleared  of  the  seeds  of  weeds.  A  dry 
loam,  sandy  or  gravelly  loam,  rich  sand,  or  other  good  dry 
soil,  is  suitable  for  it :  it  is  said  to  grow  well  in  the  coldest  cli- 
mates ;  but  those  which  are  mild  are  most  suitable  for  it.  It 
is  a  very  early  grass,  endures  drought  well,  and  grows  very 
late.  When  ground  has  been  well  prepared  for  flax,  this  grass 
will  be  sowed  to  advantage   immediately   after  that  crop. 

During  the  first  season  of  its  growth  the  product  will  not  be 
so  large  as  afterwards  ;  in  this  season,  too,  when  cultivated  in 
the  broad  cast  way,  it  is  most  infested  with  weeds,  which  are 
most  easily  destroyed  by  frequent  mowings  for  the  purpose  of 
soiling.  The  mowings  may  be  as  often  as  the  grass  will  fill 
the  scythe.  During  th*>s  season,  too,  it  will  be  much  hurt  by  be 
ing  pastured  ;  but  after  this  it  may  be  fed  without  injury. 

Sometimes  this  grass  becomes  diseased  and  turns  yellow; 
in  such  case,  let  it  be  mowed, immediately,  and  it  will  then  start 
as  fresh  and  green  as  ever. 

Mr.  De  La  Bigarre  says,  that  after  this  grass  has  stood  two 
or  three  seasons,  it  should  be  well  harrowed  early  in  the 
spring  ;  and  if  the  roots  are  considerably  torn  by  the  operation 
they  will  not  be  injured.  This  should  be  repeated  every  second 
spring  afterwards,  and  at  these  times  the  ground  should  previ- 
ously have  a  good  top  dressing,which  will  be  well  mixedwith  the 
soil  in  the  operation  of  harrovring.  The  dressing  should  not 
be  of  barn  dung,  but  some  manure,  or  compost,  free  of  the 
seed  of  weeds.  Bog  durt,bog  marie,  mud,  &c.  are  good  for 
this  purpose.  Gypsum  may  well  be  applied  every  spring,  but 
not  before  the  harrowing,  as  this  manure  should  never  be  bu- 
ried in  the  soil.  Mr.  Young,  of  Great  Britain,  makes  a  compu- 
tation of  his  expenses  in  cultirating  one  acre  of  this  grass  in 
the  drill  way  ;  and  after  deducting  the  expenses  and  rent  of 
the  ground,  tythe  and  rates,  he  makes  the  clear  profit  of  9;. ' 
I85.  trf.  sterling.  Mr.  Livingston  has  also  made  a  similar 
computation  of  some  cultivated  by  him  in  the  broad  cast,  the  re- 
sult of  which  was  not  very  far  diflferent,  though  the  value  of  the 
crop  was  in  this  case  set  much  lower  than  that  put  upon  it  by 
the  former  gentleman.  This  grass  lasts  about  ten  years,  when 
the  ground  should  be  ploughed  up,  and  it  will  then  b^  found 
very  rich,  as  the  crops  do  not  materially  exhaust  the  soil. 

It  is  believed  by  some  that  for  soiling,  in  particular,  this 
grass  will  be  found  more  productive  and  profitable  than  any 
other,  where  the  highest  cultivation  and  a  suitable  soil  are  giv- 
en to  it,  and  where  the  climate  is  suitable  for  its  growth.  It  has 
i^een  pbserved  by  Mr.  Young  that  for  fatting  biiilocks,  and  for 


C¥LTURE    GF    ARTIFICIAL    GRASSES.  99 

pasturing  swine,  this  grass  may  be  very  advantageously  used. 
When  it  is  made  into  hay,  let  it  be  cut  while  quite  green,  and 
made  without  much  shaking  about,  as  the  leaves  fall  off  con- 
siderably when  dry.  A  little  salt  added  to  it  when  laid  down 
in  the  mow  would  no  doubt  be  a  great  improvement. 

Saintfoin  will  grow  well  on  dry  stony  soils,,  that  are  unfit 
for  any  good  cultivation,  and  will  produce  on  the  waste  lands 
a  ton  of  hay,  beside  considerable  aftermath,  in  the  season. 
On  good  dry  lands  the  product  will  be  much  greater.  It  may 
be  used  for  soiling  during  the  forepart  of  the  season,  and  mow- 
ed for  hay  in  the  latter  part.  The  hay  will  fatten  horses  con- 
siderably, as  is  said,  without  the  aid  of  oats.  It  increases  the 
quantity  of  the  milk,  and  some  say  of  the  cream  also  :  while 
the  butter  is  improved  in  its  Color  and  flavor.  Saintfoin  re- 
quires a  soil  free  of  weeds,  as  for  lucern,  and  the  ground 
should  be  well  mellowed  by  deep  ploughings.  The  seed  may 
be  sown  with  the  drill  or  in  the  broad  cast ;  three  bushels  be- 
in-g  allowed  to  the  acre  in  the  former  method,  and  at  least  four 
in  the  latter*  Tlie  seeds  should  be  fresh  and  sown  early  in 
the  spring.  Those  which  have  a  bright  husk,  a  plump  kernel, 
which  is  bluish  or  grey  v.'ithout  and  greenish  within,  are  the 
beet.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  better  method  to  sow  from  one 
to  three  bushels  of  this  seed,  with  about  five  pounds  of  common 
red  clover  to  the  aero  ;  as  the  clover  serves  to  keep  down  the 
weeds  till  the  saintfoin  has  became  well  rooted.  The  seeds 
may  be  sown  with  oats  or  barley. 

Durijig  the  first  season  of  its  growth,  no  cattle  should  feed 
dn  it,  nor  should  sheep  during  the  second  season.  At  the 
end  of  six  or  seven  years,  and  afterwards,  the  ground  should 
have  such  top-dressings  and  harrowings  as  is  directed  for  lu- 
cern, and  let  gypsum  be  also  applied  every  other  spring. 

If  the  first  season  for  mowing  proves  wet,  let  the  cropbe  left 
for  seed.     It  is  at  no  time  to  be  cut  before  it  is  in  full  bloom* 

JjLiixrT,  {Potorium  Saiiguisoi'ba,)  is  mostly  used  for  early 
shenp  tecding,  though  it  may  be  advantageously  used  fof  soil- 
ing cattle,  as  it'is  hardy,  is  little  affected  by  drought  or  frosts — 
and  vvill  even  vegetate  in  moderate  winter  weather.  If  season- 
ed for  hay,  it  must  be  cut  early,  or  it  will  become  too  coarse.  It 
requires  a  dry  soil  and  may  be  sown  with  the  drill  or  broad  cast. 
It  is  essential  to  have  good  seed,  for  which  purpose  a  spot  for 
raising  it  should  be  selected.  When  a  crop  is  designed  for 
.seed,  let  the  ground  be  fed  till  sometime  in  May,  otherwise  the 
grass  will  be  too  rank  for  seed.  These  should  be  gathered 
while  moist  with  dew,  and  threshed  out  in  the  barn  as  soon  as 
they  can  bo  dried  there.      They  may  be  sown  any  time  before 


1()0 


ACRieULTURAL    ESSATS. 


August,  after  the  ground  has  been  well  prepared.  The  tbi- 
iowing  season  the  crop  is  to  be  kept  clear  of  weeds  by  the  har- 
row ;  and  after  that  it  will  grow  so  strongly  as  to  keep  down 
all  other  growths. 

CicHORY,  {Chichorium  Intibiis,)  commonly  called  Wild  Suc- 
cory, has  been  but  lately  cultivated  ;  but  on  poor  blowing  sands 
and  weak  dry  soils,  Mr.  Young  thinks  it  superior  to  any  other 
plant,  and  that  if  sown  with  burp.et  and  cock's-foot,  it  will  form 
a  layer  for  six  or  seven  years,  far  exceeding  those  made  of  tri- 
foil,  ray  grass,  and  white  clover.  It  grows  more  luxuriantly 
than  burnet,  lucern,  or  saintfoin,  and  may  be  often  cut  for  soil- 
ing during  t»S  olIir.nier.  twice  during  the  first  season,  and 
three  or  four  times  afterwards,  or  every  second  month  till  Oc- 
tober. It  may  be  made  into  hayjwhich  is  coarse,  but  tolerably 
nourishing.  Its  principal  use,  however,  is  for  soiling  and  for 
sheep  feeding,  as  it  is  less  injured  by  close  feeding  than  most 
other  vegetables. 

Mr.  Young  advises  that  it  be  drilled  at  the  distance  of  nine 
inches  on  poor  lands,  or  twelve  when  the  soil  is  richer,  after  the 
soil  has  been  first  duly  mellowed.  In  this  case  it  will  be  great- 
ly improved  by  an  occasional  scarifying.  It  may  also  be  sown 
with  oats,  in  the  broad  cast ;.  but  for  soiling,  it  is  best  sown  in 
the  fore  part  of  the  season,  and  lightly  harrov,  ed  in.  It  pro- 
duces plenty  of  head,  wliicli  is  easily  gathered. 

Spurry,  [Spangula  Arvonsis,)  has  been  considerably  culti- 
fated  in  Flanden,  on  account  of  its  growing  very  late  in  the 
fall,  and  even  during  winter,  and  afior-^liug  gcod  food  for  sheep 
and  cows.  Cattle  are  very  fond  of  it.  It  flowers  from  July  to 
•Sei^tembc!*,'  anu  i-?  best  suited  to  sandy  and  other  dry  soils. 

The  bush  vkich,  {Vicia  Sepium,)  is  said  to  shoot  earlier  in 
spring  than  any  other  artificial  grass  ;  it  grows  late  in  autumn, 
and  in  Great  Britain  retains  its  verdure  through  the  winter. 
Mr.  Sawyer  states  the  amount  of  its  produce,  per  acre,  to  have 
been  about  twenty-four  and  an  half  tons  of  green  foilder,  equal 
to  about  four  and  an  half  tons  of  dry  hay.  The  culture  of  this 
plant  was  long  since  recommended  by  Anderson,  but  the  prin- 
cipal difnculty  seems  to  be  in  collecting  the  seeds,  as  the  pods 
burst  when  ripe,  and  thus  scatter  them  before  they  can  be  con- 
veniently gathered.  Doct.  Withering,  also,  observes,  that  the 
see^s  are  often  destroyed  by  the  larvce  of  a  species  of  catela- 
bus, 

Tares,  ( Vicia  Sativa,)  a  kind  of  Pea.  Of  these  there  are 
two  varieties,  the  winter  and  spring  tares.  The  spring  tare  i^ 
to  be  sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as'the  ground  can  be  well  pre- 
pared_,  and  the  winter  tare  early  in  September.;    each  at  the 


CULTURE    OF    ARTIFICIAL    GRASSES.  I0| 

rate  of  about  eight  or  ten  pecks  to  the  acre,  broad  cast,-or  a- 
bout  half  that  proportion  for  the  drill.  Each  kind  is  o-ood  for 
feeding  cattle  of  every  description,  particularly  the  winter  tare 
Which  in  Great  Britain,  comes  into  use  just  as  the  turnip  crop 
,  IS  exhausted.  This  plant  is  not  proper  for  making  into  hay  be- 
ing greatly  injured  by  wet  weather,  and  requiring  more  than 
common  pains  to  dry  it.  The  seeds  of  the  different  kinds  must 
be  carefully  kept  apart,  as  they  cannot  be  distinguished  from 
each  other. 

The  BROAD  LEAVED  VEICH,  Or  EVERLASTING  TARE,  [LotU' 

pus  Lahfohus,)  was  long  since  recommended  by  Dr.  Anderson 
as  promising  to  afford  large  crops  of  hay  and  grass.  It  is  eat- 
en eagerly  by  cattle,  and  often  grows  to  the  height  of  twelve 
feet. 

The  TUFTED  VEICH,  or  TARE,  {Vicia  Erracca,)  attains  con- 
^  f  ^u  "^^^"^'  ^^^  produces  abundance  of  leaves.  This  sort 
and  the  wood  vitch,  ( Vicia  Eracca)  attains  considerable  heio-ht 
and  produces  abundance  of  leaves.  This  sort  and  the  wSod 
vitch,  [vicia  sylvahca,)  whieh  rises  from  two  to  four  feet  high 
are  said  to  restore  weak  or  starved  cattle  sooner  than  anv  oth- 
er vegetable  known.  ^ 

The  STRANGE  VEICH,   (/.a%rotc?€5,)  has  been  strongly  re- 
foo"d'for''fhe  '^°'^'^'  ""^  ^^'^''^'"^  ^  ^^"^^^  ^"^  agreeable 

Clovers.     Of  these  the  following  are   the  most  valuable 
which  are  known  and  cultivated. 

Trefoil,  or  common  red  clover,  [Trifolium  Praiense,) 
which  IS  commonly  cultivated  in  the  United  States.  It  ffrows 
well  on  all  dry  soils.  About  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  seed  are 
requisite  for  an  acre.  It  is  generally  sown  in  this  country  with 
barley,  oats,  or  spring  v^heat,  when  that  article  is  raised,  or  it 
may  be  sown  with  winter  wheat  in  the  fall,  if  the  land  be  dry 
and  warmly  exposed  ;  or  in  the  spring  when  it  should  be  light- 
ly bushed  or  harrowed  in.  It  is  peculiarly  excellent  for  form- 
ing a  lay  for  a  crop  of  wheat ;  which  may  be  sown  to  great  ad- 
vantage on  the  clover  sward,  when  properly  turned  under  * 

Ail  kinds  of  cattle  feed  and  thrive  well  on  it,  either  in  pas- 
tures,  when  soiled  on  it,  or  when  fed  on  the  hay. 

It  is  said  also,  that  it  will  keep  swine  well  through  the  winter     > 
thrm     ^        '  ^^^^^  ^"^'  ^""^  ^^^^^  foiled,  before  it  is  given     ' 

Red  perennial  clover,  or  cow  GiiAUs,(Trifoliu7n  Medi- 
um,) is  cultivated  m  Great  Britain,  in  aJmost  every  kind  of  good 

*  See  essay  on  wheat,  and  rotation  of  crop*. 
i2 


102  AGRICULTWRAL  ESSAlfS. 

upland  soil,  even  in  heavy  clayey  lands.  It  is  to  be  sowed  iii 
the  spring  with  oats,  bailey,  &c.  It  is  also  usual  to  sow  it 
there  as  w^ell  as  the  common  red  clover,  with  the  crop  of  flax. 
It  rarely  succeeds  when  sown  by  itself.  It  produces  abun- 
dance of  seeds,  which  are  easily  collected. 

Hop  clover,  [Trifolium  Procumbins,)  grows  naturally  in 
Great  Britain,  in  dry  meadows  and  pastures.  It  is  recommen- 
ded for  laying  down  land  to  grass  by  mixing  it  with  the  clover 
last  mentioned  and  the 

White  clover,  {Trijolium  Repens.)  This  grass  grows 
spontaneously  on  dry  uplands,  after  they  have  been  manured 
with  gypsum,  or  with  bog  marie,  &,c.  It  is  a  very  sweet  grass 
for  pasture  or  hay,  but  not  very  productive.  It  is  generally 
short  lived,  but  may  be  made  to  last  longer  by  passing  a  roller 
over  it ;  for  where  the  stalks  come  in  close  contact  with  the 
ground,  new  roots  will  start  and  descend  into  it.  It  is  culti- 
vated in  Great  Rritain  for  cheep  pastures,  and  for  other  uses. 
It  is  most  useful  in  mixing  w^ith  other  grasses  for  the  purpose 
of  thickening  the  grow^th  at  the  bottom,  and  thus  increasing  the 
product. 

In  laying  down  lands  to  grass  of  every  kind,  the  ground 
aliould  be  made  mellow  and  fine  ;  the  seed  should  be  clean  and 
good,  and  sowed  evenly  and  plentifully,  and  lightly  covereff, 
and  the  ground  made  perfectly  smooth,  particularly  where  it  is 
intended  for  mowing  and  soiling.  The  graziers  of  Great  Brit- 
ain in  laying  down  their  grass  lands,  make  use  of  much  more 
seed  than  is  usual  in  this  country.  The  quantity  which  may 
be  mo3t  profitable  to  sow  on  a  given  surface  of  soil  can  best  be 
determined  by  experiment.  Let  one  square  rod  of  ground  pro- 
perly prepared  belaid  down  with  a  given  quantity  of  seed  ;  a- 
nother  square  rod  with  a  greater  quantity  ;  and  another  with 
a  still  greater;  then  carefully  gather  and  weigh  the  product  of 
each  square  rod  separately,  and  if  that  which  has  most  seed  has 
an  increase  of  product  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  extra  seed,  and 
about  thirty  per  cent,  more,  that  quantity  of  seed  may  be  most 
advisable  to  give  the  ground.  In  the  same  way  it  may  be  as- 
certained how  far  it  is  profitable  to  sow  the  ground  with  differ- 
ent ki.ids  of  grasses,  in  order  to  increase  the  product  of  the 
whole.  This  practice  is  much  attended  to  in  Great  Britain,  ae 
will  be  seen  by  the  following  directions  of  Mr.  Young  and  Mr. 
Tallet,  for  laying  down  particular  soils  to  grass.  Mr.  Young 
directs  for  an  acre  of  clayey  land,  the  following  grasses  and 
proportions  of  each:  of  cow  grass,  five  pounds ;  trefoil  (com- 
mon red  clover,)  five  do. ;  dog  tail,  ten  do. ;  and  of  fescue  and 
f\»x  tail,  ojie  builiel. 


CWXTURE    OF    ARTIFICrAL    BRASSES.  iO@ 

For  an  acre  of  loam,  of  white  clover,  five  pounds  ;  dogr's  tail, 
ten  do.;  ray,  one  peck  ;  fescue,  three  do. ;  and  of  yarrow,  two 
ditto. 

For  an  acre  of  sand,  of  white  clover,  seven  pounds;  trefoil, 

five  do. ;  burnet,  six  do. ;  ray,  one  peck,  and  yarrow,  one  bushel! 

Mr.  Tallet  directs  that  for  an  acre  of  such  dry  light  soil  as  is 

adapted  to  the  culture  of  turnips,  the  following  proportions  of 

seed  be  given: 

Of  smooth  stalked  poa  or  meadow  grass,  six  quarts;  ray 
grass,  four  do. ;  dog's  tail,  six  do. ;  yellow  oat  grass,  four  do.  j 
cock's  foot,  two  do. ;  vernal  grasy,  one  do. ;  cow  grass,  three 
do.;  white  clover,  two  do. ;  rib  grass,  two  do.;  and  of  yarrow, 
two  do. 

Again,  for  such  soil  as  is  of  the  moister  kind  of  upland,  he  al- 
lows for  an  acre,  of  fox  tail,  six  quarts;  rough  stalked  poa,  six 
do. ;  vernal  grass,  one  do.;  cow  grass,  three  do. ;  white  clover, 
two  do. ;  rib  grass,  two  do. ;  and  of  rib,  two  do. 

When  the  water  lies  longer,  he  uirects  the  composition  to  be 
as  follows  : 

Of  rough  stalked  poa,  two  pecks  ;  fox  tail,  two  do. ;  meadow 
tescue,  two  do. ;  flote  foxtail,  three  quarts  ;  and  of  flote  fescue, 
tour  do. ;  and  tor  situations  still  more  wet,  the  following-  Of 
rough  stalked  poa,  two  pecks ;  fox  tail,  two  do. ;  ilote  fox  tail, 
one  do.;  and  of  flote  fescue,  one  do.  The  above  are  given 
merely  as  specimens  of  the  quantities  of  seeds  advised  to  be 
apportioned  to  dirferent  soils  and  of  the  several  kinds  which 
are  deemed  most  suitable,  in  Great  Britain.  It  does  not  follow 
that  the  same  sorts  of  grasses  and  the  same  proportions  and 
quantities  of  the  seeds  of  each  would  here  be  iound  most  pro- 
per in  similar  soils :  as  our  summers  are  warmer  and  our  atmos- 
phere less  moist  than  theirs.  These  are  matters  which  are 
proper  subjects  of  inquiry  with  the  experimental  farmer  It  is 
believed  that  the  British  farmers  and  graziers  give  their  grounds 
more  seed  than  will  generally  be  necessary  in  this  country 

VVhat  IS  usually  termed  meadow  land  has  been  ever  consid 
ered  as  almost  an  indispensible  appendage  to  a  farm ;  and  with- 
out a  proportion  of  such  land  the  farmer  supposes  he  cannot 
procure  a  suitable  supply  of  hay  ;  but  although  such  meadow 
land  seldom  fads  of  producmg  a  crop  of  hay,  yet  the  quality  of 
such  hay  IS  vastly  inferior  to  that  produced  by  cultivation ;  Ind 
even  the  quantity  too  is  often  much  less ;  and  the  land  totally 
lost  to  the  production  of  any  other  crop.  On  what  is  called 
good  natural  meadow  you  may  often  find  ten  or  tjvelve  differ- 
ent species  of  grass  within  the  compass  of  a  few  rods  square 


104 


AGRICULTURAL  fiSSATS. 


and  not  more  than  one  or  two  of  them  that  are  noticed  as  fur- 
nishing  food  suitable  for  the  sustenance  of  stock,  while  many 
rushes,  mosses,  &c.  are  found  growing  or?  the  same  spot  which 
are  of  no  value  whatever. 

It  is  certainly  then  worthy  of  great  consideration  whether  the 
farmer  should  not  make  it  more  of  an  object  to  cultivate  his 
grass  as  well  as  his  grain.  It  is  well  known  that  grasses  growrr 
on  dry  or  arable  land,  are  of  a  quality  vastly  superior  to' those 
of  natural  meadow,  and  it  appears  from  the  above  account  of 
the  artificial  grasses,  that  even  a  much  greater  quantity  of 
good  buy  may  be  obtained  by  cultivation  from  the  same  quan- 
tity of  land.  Besides,  the  system,  if  it  is  properly  pursued,  will 
have  the  effect  to  increase  the  quantity  and  quality  of  all  his 
other  crops,  to  a  degree  more  than  sufficient  to  compensate 
him  for  all  the  extra  labor  and  expense.* 

There  are  several  other  kinds  of  grasses,  v/hick  do  not  so 
properly  belong  to  those  wliich  are  denominated  artificial,  be- 
cause they  will  grow  and  iionri^li  longer  without  cultivation  ; 
among  these  are  the  following. 

Meadow  cats  tail,  timothy  gras3,  or  herds  grass, 
{Phleum  Pratensis.)  the  grass  most  used  for  hay  in  the  northern 
states.  It  is  sometimes  called  fox  tail,  but  this  is  another  grass. 
The  cats  tail  has  a  long  head,  somewhat  resembling  the  tail  of  a 
cat,v;ith  very  fine  seeds ;  the  fox  tail  has  a  long  bushy  head  more 
like  the  tail  ofthe  fox  with  coarse  seed.  In  other  respects 
they  have  considerable  resemblance. 

Cats  tail  grows  best  in  rich  moist  soils  but  will  grow  well  in 
a  rich  wet  soil,  or  in  a  rich  arable  soil.  In  the  ri-^h  wet  soil  it 
gradually  lessens  in  product,  while  at  the  same  time  it  gives 
way  to  wild  grasses.  In  the  rich  arable  soil  it  gradually  fails^ 
by  reason  ofthe  ground  becoming  bound  and  the  sward  thick- 
ened with  other  grasses.  If  it  were  considerably  torn  with 
the  harrow  every  spring,  and  not  too  closely  pastured  in  the 
fall,  and  none  in  the  spring,  it  would  grow  well  for  many  years 
in  such  soil.  By  close  pasturing  in  the  fall  it  is  apt  to  be  torn 
out  by  the  roots ;  and  by  cropping  it  again  in  the  spring,  it 
suffers  greatly,  -^t^will  yield  one  half  more  if  not  pastured 
any,  than  when  pl^ured  clos^^ly  in  the  fall  and  again  in  the 
spring.  In  the  richest  soils,  and  when  not  pastured,  upwards 
of  four  tons  may  be  had  in  a  season  at  two  mowings.  It  does 
not  fertilize  land  so  mvich  as  clover  ;  but  on  the  contrary  binds 
and  somewhat  exhausts  the  soil.      It  is  perennial  and  will  last 

•See  essay  on  rotation  of  crops, 


Culture  of  artifjcial  grasses. 


i05 


beyond  the  memory  of  man  if  not  destroyed  by  close  pastuf- 
in^.  Some  believe  it  is  most  valuable  for  hay  if  cut  when  in 
blossom  or  soon  after  ;  others,  when  the  seed  is  nearly  ripe  ; 
and  others  again  when  it  is  quite  ripe.  But  as  the  nourish- 
ment to  be  derived  from  it,  is  principally  from  the  stock  or 
blade,  and  not  from  the  seed,  it  certainly  must  furnish  a  bet- 
ter hay  for  either  cattle  or  horses,  when  cut  soon  after  the 
time  when  it  is  in  full  blossom.  When  however  it  is  intended 
to  be  continued  a  considerable  length  of  time  without  plough- 
ing, it  might  be  well  to  let  it  stand  some  seasons  until  the  seed 
is  fully  npd,  and  by  that  means  check,  in  some  measure,  the 
prevalence  of  weeds  and  wild  grass. 

Meadow  fox  tail,  {Alopenerus  Pratensis).  This  grass  is 
much  cultivated  in  Great  Britain  ;  it  is  an  early  grass  and  veg- 
etates with  such  luxuriancy,  that  it  may  be  mowed  three 
times  in  a  year.  The  British  graziers  consider  it  one  of  their 
best  grasses,  particularly  for  larger  cattle.  The  soil  best 
suited  for  it  is  moist  meadovV  land,  or  that  which  is  occasion- 
ally overflowed,  though  it  will  grow  well  on  almost  any  soil 
except  those  that  are  very  wet,  or  very  dry.  LinnaBous  states 
it  to  be  a  proper  grass  for  grounds,  which  have  been  drained. 
It  is  perennial,  and  yields  abundance  of  seed,  which  is  easily 
gathered.  The  seed  is  however  sometimes  liable  to  be  destroy- 
ed by  an  insect. 

Meadow  ri:^c\jE,{Festua  Pratensis)  is  an  early  hardy  pe- 
remiia.1  grass,  and  grows  well  in  almost  every  soil ;  good  fot 
liay  or  pasture,  and  produces  abundance  of  seed  which  is  easi- 
ly gathered.  Mr.  Custis  says  it  has  a  great  resemblance  to 
ray  grass,  but  is  superior  to  it  in  forming  meadows,  as  it  ^rowa 
longer,  and  has  more  foliage.  It  blossoms  about  the  middle  (jf 
June. 

Darnel,  or  -rat  grass,  {Lalium  Pereene,)  is  good  for  an 
early  supply  of  pasture,  as  it  starts  very  early.  It  grows  to 
the  height  of  about  two  feet,  and  blossoms  the  latter  end  of 
May.  Horses  are  extremely  fond  of  it  when  made  early  into 
hay  ;  and  for  race  horses  particularly,  has  been  found  prefera- 
ble to  any  other  hay.  It  is  however  apt  to  run  too  much  to 
stalks  in  most  soils,  and  tlien  cattle  dislike  it  in  pastures. 

Crested  dog's  tail,  {Cynosurus  Cnstatus.) is  good  for  up- 
land pastures,  and  is  a  wholesome  food  for  sheep.  "  It  forms  a 
thick  turf,  and  blossoms  about  the  middle  of  June.  It  abounds 
with  seed  which  is  easily  gathered ;  but  care  shoulo  be  taken 
that  it  be  fully  ripe ;  it  is  suitable  for  dry  sandy  eoils,  and  \^li,\ 
net  thriye  in  wet  mes^dows. 


106  AGRICULTrRAL    ESSAYS. 

Meadow  grass,  {Poa  Praiensis,)  will  flourish  well  even  iu 
the  driest  soils,  and  will  endure  drought  better  perhaps  than 
any  other  grass.  It  makes  fine  hay  and  is  fit  for  early  cutting. 
It  is  also  good  for  early  pasture.  It  yields  plenty  of  seed  ;  but 
this  is  difficult  to  sow  on  account  of  their  filaments,  causing 
them  to  adhere  to  each  other.  To  remedy  this  it  is  recom- 
mended to  put  them  in  newly  slacked  lime,  to  separate  them, 
and  then  to  be  rubbed  in  dry  sand. 

Vernal,  or  spring  grass,  [Anlhose  Antiem  Odoratum,)  is 
a  very  early  grass  for  pasture,  and  grows  in  almost  every  sit- 
uation, though  not  equally  productive  in  each.  It  is  an  odor- 
iferous grass,  and  is  recommended  by  some  to  be  sowed  with 
other  grasses,  in  proportion  of  about  one  eighth  for  meadow. 
It  is  not  very  productive. 

Meadow  soft  grass,  [Holcus  Lanates,)  grows  well  on  any 
soil  not  too  dry  and  barren.  It  is  best  calculated  for  sheep  in 
pastures.  It  is  injurious  to  horses  when  made  into  hay,  by  pro- 
ducing a  profuse  discharge  of  urine,  and  general  weaknesi?, 
which  rnay,  however,  be  readily  removed  by  a  change  of  food. 
It  is  not  a  very  early  grass. 

Sheeps  fescue,  {Fcstuca  Ocina,)  grows  well  in  dry  s^^n-y 
soils ;  is  very  good  for  sheep,  as  they  are  fond  of  it,  and  soon 
fattened  with  it.     It  is  perennial,  and  flowers  in  June. 

Hard  fescue,  [Festuca  Duricustula,)  flourishes  in  almost 
every  situation,  wet  or  dry,  and  blossoms  in  June.  It  grows 
luxuriantly  at  first,  often  to  the  height  of  four  feet ;  but  it  soon 
becomes  thin  and  disappears  after  a  while.  It  is  best  for  mix- 
ing with  some  other  grasses. 

Annual  meadow  grass,  {Poa  Annua,)  is  in  flower  through- 
out the  summer.  "  Cattle  of  every  kind  are  fond  of  it.  It  is  re- 
commended for  milch  cows,  on  account  of  its  alTording  butter 
of  a  superior  quality. 

Rough  stalked  meadow  grass,  [Poa  Th'iviaJis,)  resem- 
bles tlie  preceding  in  its  appearance  and  its  flowering,  but  is 
best  suited  for  moist  or  wet  meadows.  It  is  very  productive, 
and  good  for  pa?ture  or  hay.  It  is  hovvever  said,  that  it  is  lia- 
ble to  be  injured  by  severe  cold,   or  excessive  drougiit. 

Fowl  >ieadow  grass,  {Poa  Avaria,  Spicnlis  LuhbiJlonsA 
was  first  said  to  be  discovered  in  a  meadow  in  Dedham,  ana 
was  supposed  to  have  been  brought  there  by  water  fowls,  says 
Mr.Deane.  It  is  an  excellent  grass  for  wet  meadows,  and  has 
been  known  to  yield  three  tons  to  an  acre  in  a  season.  It  re- 
mains so  long  green  that  it  maybe  mowed  anytime  from  July 
till  Ov-^tobcr."^  It  makes  very  good  hay  for  horses,  and.  neat  cat- 
tle particularly. 


106  AGHlCirtTURAL    ESSAYS. 

Meadow  grass,  {Poa  Pratensis,)  will  flourish  well  even  m 
the  driest  soils,  and  will  endure  drought  better  perhaps  than 
any  other  grass.  It  makes  fine  hay  and  is  fit  for  early  cutting-. 
It  is  also  good  for  early  pasture.  It  yields  plenty  of  seed  ;  but 
this  is  difficult  to  sow  on  account  of  their  filaments,'  causing 
them  to  adhere  to  each  other.  To  remedy  this  it  is  recom- 
mended to  put  them  in  newly  slacked  lime,  to  separate  them, 
and  then  to  be  rubbed  in-  dry  sand. 

Vernal,  or  spring  grass,  [Antkose  Antiem  Odoratum,)  is 
a  very  early  grass  for  pasture,  and  grows  in  almost  every  sit- 
uation, though  not  equally  productive  in  each.  It  is  an  odor- 
iferous grass,  and  is  recommended  by  some  to  be  sowed  with 
other  grasses,  in  proportion  of  about  one  eighth  for  meadow. 
It  is  not  very  productive. 

Meadow  sqet  grass,  [Holcus  Lanates,)  grows  well  on  any 
soil  not  too  dry  and  barren.  It  is  best  calculated  for  sheep  in 
pastures.  It  is  injurious  to  horses  when  made  into  hay,  by  pro- 
ducing a  profuse  discharge  of  urine,  and  general  weakness, 
which  may,  however,  be  readily  removed  by  a  change  of  food, 
•ft  is  not  a  very  early  grass. 

Sheeps  fescue,  {Feshica  Ocina,)  grows  well  in  dry  sandy 
soils;  is  very  good  for  sheep,  as  they  are  fond  of  it,  and  soon 
fattened  with  it.    It  is  perennial,  and  flowers  in  June. 

Hard  fescue,  {Festuca  Duricitstula,)  flourishes  in  almost 
every  situation,  wet  or  dry,  and  blossoms  in  June.  It  grows 
luxuriantly  at  first,  often  to  the  height  of  four  feet ;  but  it  soon 
becomes  thin  and  disappears  after  a, while..  It  is  best  for  mix* 
ing  with  some  other  grasses. 

Annual  meadow  grass,  {Poa  Annua,)  is  in  flower  through- 
out the  summer.  Cattle  of  every  kind  are  fond  of  it.  It  is  re- 
commended for  milch  cow;s,  on  account  of  its  affording  butter 
of  a  superior  quality. 

Rough  stalked  meadow  grass,  [Poa  TnviaUs,)  resem- 
bles the  preceding  in  its  appearance  and  its  flowering,  but  ifr 
best  suited  for  moist  or  wet  meadows.  It  is  very  productive, 
and  good  for  pasture  or  hay.  It  is  however  said,  that  it  is  lia- 
ble to  be  injured  by  severe  cold,  or  excessive  drought. 

Fowl  meadow  grass,.  {Poa  Avaria,  Sjiicalis  Lmbhijloris,) 
was  first  said  to  be  discovered  in  a  meadow  in  Dedham,  and 
was  supposed  to  have  been  brought  there  by  water  fowls,  sayg 
Mr.Deane.  It  is  an  excellent  grass  for  wet  meadows,  and  has 
been  known  to  yield  three  tons  to  an  acre  in  a  season.  It  re- 
mains so  long  green  that  it  mfay  be  mowed  any  time  from  July 
till  October.  It  makes  very  good  bay  fpr  horses^  and  neat  c^.^ 
tie  paftipularly, 


-CULTURE   or    ARTIFICIAL    GRASSES-  1^' 

FlATSTALKED  RED  MEADOW  GRASS,( Poa  C077ipM55a.)fl0Urish- 

es  in  dry  soils,  and  flowers  from  June  to  August.  It  forms  a  fine 
turf  and  imparts  a  delicate  flavor  to  the  flesh  of  sheep  and 
deer  which  anunals  are  very  fond  of  it. 

Silver  hair  grass,  {Aira  Curyophy  Cea)  is  most  suitable 
for  «andy  lands,  and  is  recommended  tor  sheep  walks,  on  ac- 
roimt  of  the  fineness  of  the  mutton  of  those  sheep  which  are 
fed  on  it  It  flowers  in  July.  Mr.  TiUingfleet  applies  the 
same  remark  to  the  waved  mountain  hair  grass,  (aira  fiexuosa) 
which  grows  in  heaths  and  barren  pastures,  and  is  m  flower 
from  June  to  August.  .    «   ,     .      n  •         •  i. 

r  Creepkn'g  bExNI  grass,  {Agrosiis  Stolompra)  grows  m  moist 
lands,  and  is  a  good  food  for  cattle.  It  grows  with  such  lux- 
uriance as  to  suppress  the  growth  of  moss  and  other  weeds. 

Tall  oat  grass,  (Orena  Elatiorf  flowers  m  June  and  July. 
It  grows  very  large  and  coarse,  and  makes  a  pretty  good  hay, 
though  horses  are  not  fond  of  it.  In  point  of  exceUence,  Mr. 
Custis  ranks  it  next  to  fox  tail.  In  pastures  it  should  be  close- 
ly fed.  It  yields  plentifully  of  seed.  No  doubt,  a  litth^alt 
appHed  to  the  hay  made  of  this  grass,  when  laid  down  ii|the 
tnow,  would  be  a  great  improvement  to  it.  \ 

Mr.  Muhlenbergh,  of  Pennsylvania,  recommends  this  grass 
very  much,  as  one  of  the  best  he  had  cultivated.  It  would  pro- 
bably answer  well  for  soiling,  as  it  starts  very  early  and  grow« 
very  late.  ^  .       , 

Yellow  oat  grass,  [Avena  Havescens)  is  also  a  coarse^ 
grass,  which  thrives  m  meadows  and  pastures,  and  on  hills  of 
calcareous  soil,  where  it  flowers  in  June  and  July.  Though 
tolerably  sweet,  it  is  less  relished  by  cattle  than  the  poas  and 
fescue  grasses  ;  though  it  is  said,  it  makes  good  sheep  pastures. 

Rib  grass;  {Plantago  Lacnalata.)  It  has  been  considerably 
propagated  in  some  parts  of  Great  Britain,  where  it  is  held  in 
estimation.  It  is"  best  adapted  to  rich  sands  and  loams,  and  on 
poor  sands  it  answers  tolerably  well  for  sheep.  It  is  not  liked 
by  horses,  and  is  "bad  for  hay,  on  account  of  its  retaining  its 
sap.  It  is  said  by  Baron  Haller,  that  the  richness  of  the  milk 
in  the  celebrated  daisies  of  the  Alps,  is'  owing  to  the  cov/s 
feeding  .on  this  plant  and  the  lady's  mantle,  (alchemilla  vulga- 
ris.)   Its  seed  is  plentiful. 

Cock's  foot,  {Dactylis  Glpmerain,)  is  a  coarse  grass,  and 
grows  with  luxuriance.  It  suits  all  kinds  of  soils,  but  those 
which  are  very  wet  or  very  dry.    It  is  said  to  afford  an  abun- 

.  *■  This  ^ras3  is  sometimes  called  by  farmers,  Tall  Oat  Grass, 
^ojnetimes  Tall  Meadov7  Oats,  and  also  by  some,  Orchard  Grass^ 


tes 


AeKICUIiTTJRAL    E«-SATT5. 


dant  crop,  springs  early,  yields  abundance  of  seed,  maljes  ex- 
cellent hay,  and  is  very  permanent.  It  flowers  in  June- 
Where  it  grows  on  rank  soils,  however,  or  in  coarse  patches, 
cattle  will  not  eat  it. 

Bi.uE  dog's  tail  grass,  {Ctjuosusus  Camlius)  is  the  ear- 
liest of  all  the  British  grasses,  and  flowers  a  fortnight  sooner 
than  any  other,  it  is  not  very  productive,  but  may  be  useful 
in  sheep  pastures,  in  high  rocl^  situations,  where  there  is  but 
little  sail. 

The  following  Aquatic  plants  may  be  of  some  use  to  some  of 
our  citizens,  in  certain  conditions. 

Flote  fox  tail,  [jnopecurus  Geniculatus)  grows  in  mead- 
ows on  the  Severn,  in  Great  Britain,  where  other  good  grasses 
are  expelled  by  reason  of  wetness  and  inundations.  It  is  a 
good  grass  for  hay,  and  flowers  in  May  and  June.  It  is  recom- 
mended for  newly  reclaimed  morasses,  and  lands  recovered 
iVom  the  sea. 

Flote  fescue,  {Festuca  Fluitans,)  will  grow  in  still  wetter 
grounds  than  the  flote  fox  tail,  or  rather  may  be  said  to  be  am- 
phibious, growing  as  well  in  the  water  or  otherwise.  It  flow- 
•ers  in  June,  and  is  a  constituent  part  of  the  celebrated  Orches- 
ton  meadow,  in  Great  Britain.  Horses  and  cows  are  very 
fond  of  it.  It  springs  early,  and  promises  to  be  useful  for  the 
same  purposes  as  the  last  mentioned  grass.  The  Chedder  and 
Cattenham  cheese  owe  their  excellence  principally  to  this 
gra^,  and  to  the 

Water  har  grass  ;  {^ira  Aqualica)  which  is  further  said 
to  contribute  much  to  the  fine  flavor  of  the  Cambridge  butter. 
It  generally  grows  in  the  edges  of  standing  waters,  and  flow- 
ers in  June  aod  July. 

Reed  meadow  <jras«,  {Foa  Aquatica)  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  useful  of  the  British  grasses,  and  forms  much  of  the 
riches  of  Cambridgeshire,  and  other  counties  in  England, 
where  draining  meadows  by  wind  machinery,  is  carried  on. 
It  is  good  for  pasture  and  hay,  particularly  for  milch  cows, 
though  it  is  not  relished  so  well  by  horses.  It  is  strong,  and 
well  suited  to  low  places,  which  are  liable  to  be  inundated.  It 
grows  to  the  height  of  six  feet,  but  should  be  mowed  when 
about  four  feet  high.  It  may  be  mowed  several  times  in  a  sea- 
son. It  grows  plentifully  in  ths  marshes  of  Sandusky  Bay, 
River  Raisin,  Detroit,  and  elsewhere,  round  the  westerly  part 
of  Lake  Erie,  where  it  is  the  principal  reliance  for  pasture  and 
hay.  The  French  farmers  there,  cut  it  and  bind  it  in  bundles, 
when  dried,  which  seems  to  be  similar  to  the  management  of  it, 
in  the  parts  where  it  is  cultivated  in  Great  Britain. 


CWLTURE    OF   BrCKWHEAT. 


1^9 


It  is  not  supposed  that  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  introduce 
all  the  grasses  which  have  been. here  enumerated,  into  general 
use  *  But  it  was  thought  expedient  to  describe  them,  because 
the  great  diversity  of  the  condition  of  our  citizens,  especially 
of  the  locality  of  their  situation,  may,  if  not  even  at  the  present 
thne,  at  no  very  distant  period,  render  the  knowledge  of  them 
interesting.  But  it  may  be  easily  conceived  that  a  better 
knowledge  of  those  grasses  already  in  general  cultivation,  will 
be  requisite,  when  we  understand  and  practise  the  system  of 
husbandry  connected  with  the  plan  of  rotation  of  crops,  and 
that  also  of  making  improvements  by  the  turning  in  the  green 
■erops  for  manure. 


Buckwheat. 

It  may  be  observed  respecting  this  kind  of  grain,  that  it  will 
.^ow  on  a  soil  perhaps  less  fertile  than  any  other,  and  with 
the  nourishment  which  may  be  derived  from  a  little  gypsum, 
crops  of  it  may  be  raised  year  after  year  on  the  same  spot  of 
ground. 

In  those  parts  of  the  United  States  where  chesnut  trees 
■^row,  it  has  been  found,  from  long  experience,  that  the  proper 
time  for  sowing  the  seed  is  when  that  tree  is  in  full  blossom. 
But  for  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  sown  about  the  time  when 
•herds-grass  first  begins  to  blossom,  or  a  little  sooner  in  more 
northern  climates.  It  requires  about  half  a  bushel  to  the  acre. 
But  this,  like  all  other  crops,  would  require  that  the  quantity  of 
seed  should  be  increased  or  diminished,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  soil. 

Spring  rye  may  be  sown  with  buckwheat,  and  a  crop  of  each 
Hiay  be  produced  together,  which  will  constitute  a  very  good 
food  to  assist  iA  the  fatting  of  hogs.  It  answers  also  a  goo«l 
purpose  to  feed  to  horses  and  fowlsv  But  as  it  may  be  oftem 
raised  where  other  grain  cannot  be  procured  so  easily,  it  is 
worthy  of  attention,  in  consideration  of  its  answering  a  valuable 

*The  artificial  grass  seeds  trbich  hare  been  enumerated,  or  any 


CfLTURE    OF    BUCKWHEAT. 


m 


It  is  not  supposed  that  it  will  be  found  necessary  to  introduce 
all  the  grasses  which  have  been  here  enumerated,  into  general 
use  *  But  it  was  thought  expedient  to  describe  them,  because 
the  great  diversity  of  the  condition  of  our  citizens,  especially 
of  the  locality  of  their  situation,  may,  if  not  even  at  the  present 
time,  at  no  very  distant  period,  render  the  knowledge  of  them 
interesting.  But  it  may  be  easily  conceived  that  a  better 
knowledge  of  those  grasses  already  in  general  cultivation,  will 
"be  requisite,  when  we  understand  and  practise  the  system  ot 
husbandry  connected  with  the  plan  of  rotation  ol  crops,  and 
that  also  of  making  improvements  by  the  turnmg  m  Uie  green 
-crops  for  manure. 


Buckwheat. 

It  may  be  observed  respecting  this  kind  of  grain,  that  it  will 
jrow  on  a  soil  perhaps  less  fertile  than  any  other,  and  with 
the  nourishment  which  may  be  derived  from  a  little  gypsum, 
€rops  of  it  may  be  raised  year  after  year  on  the  same  spot  of 
ground. 

In  those  parts  of  the  United  States  where  chesnut  trees 
grow,  it  has  been  found,  from  long  experience,  that  the  proper 
time  for  sowing  the  seed  is  when  chat  tree  is  m  full  blossom. 
But  for  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  sown  about  the  time  when 
herds-grass  first  begins  to  blossom,  or  a  little  sooner  in  more 
northern  climates.  It  requires  about  half  a  bushel  to  the  acre. 
But  this,  like  all  other  crops,  would  require  that  the  quantity  of 
seed  should  be  inc^^3ased  or  diminished,  according    to  the 

strength  of  the  soil.  ,  ,      t     i  j  ^       i 

Sprino-  rye  may  be  sown  with  buckwheat,  and  a  crop  oi  each 
may  be  produced  together,  which  will  constitute  a  very  good 
food  to  assist  in  the  fatting  of  hogs.  It  answers  also  a  good 
purpose  CO  feed  to  horses  and  fowls.  But  as  it  may  be  often 
raised  where  other  grain  cannot  be  procured  so  easily,  it  is 
worthy  of  attention,  in  consideration  of  its  answering  a  valuable 

*The  artificial  grass  seeds  which  have  been  enumerated,  or  any 
other  seeds  mentioned  in  these  essays,  may  be  obtained  frem  shops 
in  New- York  and  Albany,  at  a  small  expense. 
K 


il^  AGRICULTURAL    ESSA^. 

purpose  for  making  cakes,  which  when  warm  are  esteemed  as 
a  good  substitute  for- more  expensive  kinds  of  bread,  and  are  e- 
ven  used  by  many  out  of  choice.  The  raising  of  buckwheat 
for  the  valuable  purpose  of  preparing  the  soil  for  a  crop  of 
wheat,  should  be  kept  in  view.^ 

Some  farmers  have  practiced  sowing  rye  invariably  after 
buckwheat;  and  some  have  sown  the  rye  in  July  with  their 
buckwheat,  which,  it  is  said,  keeps  the  rye  down  so  as  to  pre- 
vent its  bemg  too  forward  when  the  buckwheat  comes  off.  This 
IS  a  labor  savmg  culture,  and  good  crops  of  rye  have  been  rais- 
ed m  this  way  ;  but  it  is  believed  to  be  better  husbandry  to 
plough  up  the  ground  after  the  buckwheat  comes  off. 

It  is  useful  in  driving  out  the  azeyed  daisy,  butter  cup,  crow 
toot,  Canada  thistle,  and  other  noxious  weeds,  as  well  as  the 
ijuack  grass,  or  couch  gr^s. 


P.EA. 

Peas,  of  all  kinds,  for  family  use,  may  be  sown  in  the  field 
mthe  broad  cast  way,  and  the  farmer,  who  has  land  plentv 
may  raise  them  cheaper,  and  with  much  less  trouble      It  is 
said  that  the  German  farmers  attend  much  to  the  culture  of 
this  pea.     An  average  product  is  about  eighteen  bushels  to 
the  acre.    They  preserve  the  liuum  to  feed  their  cattle,  which 
may  answer  as  a  substitute  for  other  food  when  it  is  scarce 
tt'^^^:,^^^^'^^^  of  ^^®  P®^  «ho"W  be  ^ore  attended  to  in  the 
United  States,  when  it  is  considered,  tY.at  the  crop,  though  of 
less  value  than  many  others,  does  not  mbch  exhai-st  the  soil 
and  does  no  injury  to  the  crop  of  wheat,  which  may  succeed  it! 
By  such  culture,  the  farmer  may  gain  an  extra  crop  from  the 
land  which  he  intends  for  sowing  to  wheat  the  next  fall,  f 

A  bug  is  often  found  which,    has    eat  into  ti^  heart  of 
the  pea ;  although  it  does  not  prevent  the  growth  of  them 
they  will  injure  the  next  crop,  if  they  are  not  destroyed.     One* 
method  to  kill  them  is  to  let  the  peas  be  thrown  into  hot  wa- 
tefr,  and  after  remaining  there  a  few  seconds,  take  them  out 


*  See  essay  on^the  culture  of  wheat, 
t  Ses  Essay  on  wheat. 


Culture  oi^  peas.  Ill 


arid  let  theia  be  dried  and  sowed  immediately.  The  same 
means  too  may  be  used  to  prepare  them  for  cooking,  and  the 
bugs  will  drop  out  after  they  are  dead,  and  are  then  easily 
separated  from  th«  peas.  In  that  case  however,  tliey  should 
be  kept  longer  in  the  hot  water. 

The  time  for  sowing  any  kind  of  peas  is  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  the  ground  can  be  well  prepared.  A  dry  soil  is  the 
best  for  them.  The  quantity  usually  sown  upon  an  acre  is  two 
bushels.  Some  sow  three  ;  and  as  a  reason  for  sowing  the 
latter  qiiantity,  they  say  that  by  growing  thicker  they  will  be 
less  liable  to  fa]l  flat  on  the  ground,  which  has  a  tendency  to 
prevent  the  pods  from  filling. 

It  is  difficult  to  cover  peas  with  the  harrow  ;  they  should  be 
ploughed  in.  It  has  been  said  by  Lord  Kames  that  peas  laid  a 
foot  below  the  surface  will  vegetate ;  but  that  the  most  ap- 
proved depth  is  six  inches  in  light  soil,  and  four  inches  in  clay- 
ey soil. 

The  following  remarks  of  Mr.  Bartram,  of  Pennsylvania,  a 
distinguished  naturalist,  respecting  the  bug  in  the  pea,  may 
lead  to  some  means  by  which  their  mischievous  effects  may 
be  avoided  ;  "They  feed,  when  in  the  caterpiUar  or  grub  stata, 
on  tne  green  garden  or  field  pea  as  soon  as  the  pods  have  ar- 
nvea  to  a  state  of  maturity,  sufficient  to  show  the  peas  which 
are  withm  them.  In  the  evening,  or  on  a  cloudy  day,  the  fe- 
male deposits  her  eggs  on  the  out  side  of  the  pods  ;  these  egg« 
or  nits  soon  hatch,  and  the  young  larva,  or  worm  eats  directly 
through,  and  enters  the  tender  young  pea  where  it  lodges,  and 
remains  feeding  on  its  contents,  until  it  changes  to  a  crysalis, 
aftdthencetoa  fly  or  beetle,  before  the  succeeding  spring: 
but  do  not  eat  their  way  out  until  the  cold  and  frosts  are  past. 
abouUhe  beginning  of  April,  when  we  generally  begin  to  plant 
peas.  After  they  have  disseminated  their  eggs,  they  perish, 
liutthat  which  is  surprising  and  difficult  to  be  accounted  for, 
IS  that  the  worm  leaves  the  rostellum,  or  sprout,  untouched,  or 
at  least  umnjured  ;  for  almost  every  pea  vegetates  and  thrives 
vigorously,  notwithstanding  the  corculum  (the  rudiment  of 
the  young  plant)  Plumula  seem  to  be  consumed.  J.  Pecker- 
mg,  ot  Wyommg,  in  Pennsylvania,  sowed  the  early  charlton 
and  green  marrow-fats,  in  his  garden,  in  1789,  the  first  week 
m  May ;  the  first  had  green  pods  in  July  ;  the  marrow-fats 
came  later.  Some  of  both  kinds  were  left  to  ripen.  The  seed 
ott  he  earliest  in  thespring  following  were  found  swarming  with 
fi  ?!'  u  T^'n^T^""^  ^^^'*  ^^^  "one.  He  afterwards  sowed  his 
field  about  the  20th  of  May,  and  the  crop  was  free  from-bug,s. 
ne  thought  the  obvious  inference  was  that  this  mischievous  in~ 


ilQ  AGRieUXTURAL  ESSAYS. 

sect  is  limited  to  a  certain  period  for  depositing  its  eggs  ;  and 
that  if  the  tender  pods  are  not  found  till  that  period  is  passed, 
the  peas  will  be  free  from  bugs.  Wyoming  (now  Wilkes- 
bare)  is  in  latitude  41  degrees,  13  minutes.  The  active  flight 
of  the  pea  bug  will  be  doubtless  earlier  there  than  in  raor^ 
nertherly  regions. 


GULTFRE    OF    PrUIT-TrE£S. 

If  success  is  expected  in  raising  fruit-trees,  much  attention 
IS  necessary,  both  in  the  planting  them,  and  afterwards  in 
their  preservation. 

In  taking  up  the  tree  from  the  nursery,  care  should  be  taken 
to  dig  away  the  earth  around  the  roots,  so  as  to  come  at  their 
Several  parts  to  cut  them  off;  for  if  they  are  torn  out  of  the 

f  round,  as  they  frequently  are,  the  roots  will  be  broken  and 
ruised,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  trees.  To  prepare  them  for 
planting,  all  the  small  fibres  are  to  be  cut  off,  as  near  to  the 
place  from  whence  they  are  produced  as  may  be,  excepting^ 
perhaps,  when  they  are  to  be  immediately  replanted  as  soon 
as  taken  up.  But  it  will  require  great  care  to  plant  them  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  distort  or  entangle  the  fibrous  roots, 
which  will  be  worse  for  the  plant  than  if  they  were  cut  off. 
All  the  bruised  or  broken  roots,  all  such  as  are  irregular,  and 
cross  each  other,  and  all  downright  roots  in  fruit-trees,  should 
be  pruned  off.  The  lateral,  or  side  roots,  should  be  shortened 
in  proportion  to  the  age,  the  strength,  and  nature  of  the  trees. 
The  walnut,  mulberry,  and  some  other  tender  rooted  kinds, 
should  not  be  pruned  so  close,  as  the  more  hardy  sorts  of  fruit- 
and  forest  trees.  In  young  fruit  trees,  such  as  pears,  apples, 
plumbs,  and  peaches,  that  are  one  year  old  from  the  time  of 
their  budding,  or  grafting,  the  roots  may  be  left  only  about 
eight  or  nine  inches  long.  This  is  only  to  be  understood  of 
the  longer  roots. 

In  pruning  their  heads,  prune  off  all  the  small  branches,  and 
irregular  ones  which  cross  each  other ;  also  all  sueh  parts  of 
branches  as  have  been  broken  or  wounded,  leaving  only  the 
main  leading  shoots  which  are  necessary  to  attract  the  sap 
firem  the  root,  thereby  to  promote  the  growth  of  t-he  tree. 


CULTURE    OF    FRUIT-TREES.  113 

If' they  have  been  long  out  of  the  ground,  before  they  are 
planted  they  should  be  placed  in  water,  with  their  heads  erect, 
the  roots  only  immersed,  by  means  of  which  the  roots  will  be- 
come ^welled  and  prepared  to  imbibe  nourishment  from  the 
earth. 

In  planting,  regard  should  be  had  to  the  nature  of  the  soil ; 
if  it  be  cold  and  moist,  the  trees  should  be  planted  very  shal- 
low ;  if  a  hard  rock,  or  gravel,  it  will  be  better  to  raise  a  hill 
of  earth,  where  each  tree  is  to  be  planted,  than  to  dig  into  the 
rock  or  gravel,  and  fill  it  up  with  earth,  as  too  often  practised ; 
by  which  means  they  have  not  sufficient  room  to  extend  their 
roots.  The  earth  witli  which  the  hole  is  filled  up,  should  be 
broken  with  the  spade,  that  it  may  fall  between  every  root,  so 
as  to  leave  no  hollow  places  in  the  earth.  In  transplanting 
trees,  especially  large  ones,  Mr.  Forsyth  considers  it  to  be  of 
great  consequence  that  they  be  placed  in  the  same  position, 
having  the  same  parts  facing  the  same  points  of  compass  as 
before  they  were  removed. 

In  deciding  on  the  proper  distance  of  trees  in  an  orchard,  it 
should  be  considered  that  they  should  be  set  so  far  apart  that 
their  limbs  will  not  be  likely  to  interfere  with  each  other, 
when  they  arrive  at  their  full  growth. 

In  a  soil  best  suited  to  their  growth,  in  which  they  will  be- 
come largest,  thirty-five,  or  even  forty  feet  will  not  be  too 
much. 

It  is  said  that  after  an  orchard  is  planted,  it  is  best  to  keep 
the  land  continually  in  tillage,  until  the  trees  have  begun  to 
bear  plentifully.*  But  great  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
roots  be  not  disturbed  by  ploughing,  nor  the  bark  on  the  stems 
of  the  trees  wounded  ;  and  the  ground  near  the  trees  which 
the  plough  leaves,  should  be  broken  and  made  mellow  with 
the  spade,  for  two  or  three  years,  before  the  roots  have  far 
extended* 

*  Any  use  to  which  an  orchard  should  >)e  appropriated,  besides 
that  of  procuring  fruit,  must  depend  on  the  condition  of  the  farm. 
It  may  be  expedient  to  appropriate  it  to  pasture  the  fore  part  of 
the  season,  or  to  meadow  ;  but  the  growth  of  the  trees  when  cir- 
cumstances wil!  admit,  is  best  promtted  by  tilla§;e,  as  above 
directed. 

k2 


tl4  AGRICULTURAL   ESSAYS. 

PRUNING    OF    FRUIT-TREES. 

A  writer,  whose  essay  on  the  subject  of  apple-trees,  is  pub- 
lished in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Repository,*  mentions 
three  modes  of  mismanagement  which  injure  orchards.  1.  Be- 
ginning to  prune  them  in  March,  when  there  is  still  much  wet 
and  frosty  weather,  and  no  activity  in  the  sap  of  the  tree.  2.  The 
old  practice  of  hacking  and  mutilating  apple-trees  in  a  manner 
ruinous  to  an  orchard.  It  is,  says  he,  an  universal  practice 
among  the  old  farmers,  to  mount  the  tree  with  a  hatchet,  or 
bill-hook;  and  hack  off  any  branch  which  is  in  a  state  of  decay, 
•r  which  is  misplaced,  about  six  or  eight  inches  from  its  inser- 
tion, leaving  a  stump  to  rot,  and  to  operate  as  a  conductor  of 
the  water,  frost,  and  canker,  into  tlie  mother  branch  in  which 
it  grew,  or  into  the  body  of  the  tree,  according  to  its  situation. 
This  was  done  originally  from  an  idea  that  if  you  cut  close  to 
tiie  mother  branch,  or  to  the  body  of  the  tree,  the  rot,  or  can- 
ker will  seize  more  readily  on  its  trunk,  than  if  cut  at  a  dis- 
tance, and  that  the  tree  will  decay  the  sooner.  The  practice 
has  been  followed  without  reflection,  and  without  reason  by 
jnany. 

The  error  is  obvious,  as  any  man  may  learn  by  making  his 
experiments  on  a  young  tree.  This  writer  advises  the  farmer, 
when  he  has  fixed  upon  a  limb  to  be  lopped  off,  if  it  is  large 
and  heavy,  to  cut  it  first  at  some  distance  from  its  insertion,  ta 
prevent  its  vv^eight,  in  falling,  from  lacerating  the  bark  at  the 
shoulder,  whence  your  final  cut  is  to  be  ;  because  this  leaves 
an  opening  for  water  to  get  under  the  bark,  and  cannot  easily 
be  healed.  You  may  now  saw  the  stump  close  to  the  branch 
from  whence  it  proceeds,  with  safety  ;  or  if  it  be  a  portion  of  a 
branchwhich  is  to  be  lopped  off,the  cut  should  be  down  to  a  sound 
healthy  lateral  branch,  growing  from  the  same  limb  ;  or  if  the 
limb  to  be  cut  off,  proceed  from  the  body,  or  trunk  of  the  tree, 
then  it  should  be  sawed  close  to  the  shaft.  The  wood  in  all 
•ases,  should  be  smoothed  o^er,  and  the  edges  of  the  bark 
earefully  pared  with  your  knife  or  hatchet,  so  that  the  water 
will  run  off  the  wound.  If  the  cut  be  made  on  a  lateral  branch, 
it  should  be  sawed  obliquely,  or  slanting,  so  as  to  leave  no 
dead  wood,  or  wood  to  die,  and  in  all  cases  the  cut  should  be 
©n  a  sound  and  healthy  part  of  the  tree.  If  the  branch  oh 
which  it  is  cut  is  a  healthy,  vigorous  one,  it  will  heal  without 
difficulty,  if  pruned  the  last  of  April  or  beginning  of  May  ;  but 
if  in  March,  the  wound  should  be  covered  with  a  compost  j 

*  VoU  T.  p.  121-127* 


PRUNING    OF    FRUIT-TREES.  115 

but  if  the  wound  is  large,  so  as  to  require  several  seasons  be- 
fore it  can  heal  entirely,  it  will  be  better  to  apply  the  eompost, 
whether  it  be  pruned  in  March  or  later. 

Third  error  consists  in  the  habit  of  encouraging  luxuriant 
upright  branches,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  natural  horizontal 
fruit-bearing  branches  ;  these  are  very  properly  called  glutton 
branches,  because  they  consume  the  sap  which  would  other- 
wise go  into  the  lateral  and  fruit-bearing  branches,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years,  they  leave  the  fruit  branches  decaying 
and  decayed  ;  the  farmer  then  resorts  to  his  axe,  cuts  away 
the  dead 'and  dying  wood,  and  leaves  the  glutton  in  full  pos- 
session of  all  the  nourishment  which  the  rcots  afford  ;  but  in 
return  this  voracious  member  of  the  orchard  gives  no  fruit 
until  many  years,  and  then  it  is  of  an  inferior  quality. 

To  prevent  this,  the  cultivator  should  suppress  ail  the  stiff, 
upright  shoots,  the  first  year  they  appear,  by  cutting  them  off 
down  to  the  branch  from  which  they  issue  :  taking  care  not  to 
leave  the  shoulder  of  the  shoot,  as  he  will  in  such  case  have 
the  same  duty  to  perform  again ;  but  if  the  shoulder  of  the 
glutton  be  cut  away,  the  sap  will  be  distributed  among  the 
lateral  fruit-bearing  branches,  which  will  be  kept  in  vigor,  and 
continue  in  a  healthful  bearing  state. 

The  compost  best  suited  to  cover  the  wounds  of  all  trees,  is 
a  composition  of  tar,  beeswax,  and  red  ochre,  boiled  and  sim- 
mered for  half  an  hoar  or  twenty  minutes  together.  The  pro- 
portion recommended,  is  a  pint  of  tar,  and  a  piece  of  beeswax  as 
big  as  an  English  walnut.  When  these  are  incorporated, 
scatter  a  small  quantity  of  pulverized  red  ochre,  say  halfagill^ 
and  stir  them  well  togethe:^  while  boiling  hot,  or  simmering. 
When  this  compost  is  cool,  it  should  be  stiff  enough  to  resist 
the  heat  of  the  sun  sufficiently  to  prevent  its  running,  and  yet 
soft  enough  to  be  applied  to  the  wound  with  a  small,  flat,  smooth 
stick  ;  it  will  last  two  years  without  renewing  ;  it  yields  to  the 
sap  as  it  issues  from  under  the  bark  round  the  wound  to  cover 
it,  while  it  continues  to  protect  both  the  wood  and  the  edge  of 
the  bark  from  water,  and  of  course  from  decay. 

To  prevent  the  decline  of  fruit  trees,  washing  and  rubbing 
their  bodies  v;ith  soft  soap  has  been  used  with  success,  on  ap- 
ple trees,  pear  trees  and  peach  trees.  It  is  used  in  the  spring, 
and  repeated  the  followmg  years  as  often  as  the  trees  seem  to 
require  it.  It  is  also  recommended  to  whitewash  the  bodies  of 
fruit  trees  in  the  spring  with  a  mixture  of  lime  and  water. 

The  following  composition  for  curing  defects  in  trees,  and 
restoring  old  decayed  ones,  is  recommended  by  Mr.  Forsyth^ 
as  being  very  efficacious. 


li^  AdiiieijLTVRAt  ESfsAfsr. 

Take  a  bushel  of  fresh  cow  dung,  half  a  bushel  of  lime  rub- 
bish from  the  ceilings  of  old  rooms,  which  is  best,  or  pounded 
chalk,  or  old  slaked  lime  will  answer,  half  a  bushel  of  wood 
ashes,  and  a  sixteenth  of  river  sand  ;  sift  the  the  three  last  ar- 
ticles fine  before  they  are  mixed  ;  work  them  well  together  by 
beating,  &c.  so  as  completely  to  mix  them :  Then  reduce  the 
mass  to  the  consistence  of  thick  paint,  by  mixing  with  it  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  urine  and  soap  suds,  so  that  it  can  be  used 
with  a  brush.  A  good  coat  of  this  is  to  be  applied  to  the  nak- 
ed wood  where  a  limb  is  cut  off,  or  the  wool  otherwise  laid 
bare,  and  the  pov/der  of  wood  ashes  arid  burnt  bones  is  to  be 
sprinkled  over  this  and  gently  pressed  down  with  the  hand.- 
With  this  he  restores  all  rotten  decayed  trees  to  a  flourishing 
state.  To  effect  this,  all  the  rotten  and  dead  part  of  the  tree 
is  first  cut  away  and  scraped  out  quite  down  into  the  roots,  till 
you  come  to  the  live  wood,  and  then  smoothed,  and  the  edges- 
i?ext  the  live  bark  rounded  off.  The  composition  is  then  laid 
on  with  a  brush,  and  covered  as  before  directed  with  the  pow- 
der. As  the  bark  of  the  edges  grows  over  this  covered  wood, 
it  works  off  the  composition  and  supplies  its  place,  till  at  length 
the  bark  of  the  two  edges  meet  and  grow  together.  If  the 
growing  bark  should  raise  up  any  flakes  of  the  composition,  sa 
as  to  expose  the  wood,  let  them  be  pressed  down  with,  the  fin- 
gers some  rainy  day,  when  the  composition  is  pliable.  Wherff 
a  tree  would  be  too  much  weakened  by  cutting  away  all  its 
dead  wood  at  once,  cut  only  a  part  away  next  fhe  edges,  and 
as  the  bark  covers  this,  cut  away  more.  Where  limbs  aye 
cutoff,  let  the  stumps  be  pared  smooth  and  the  edges  round-^ 
ed,  before  the  composition  is  kid  on.  He  says  this  should  al- 
ways be  applied  wherever  a  limb  is  cut  off,  in  order  topfeserve 
the  tree  from  rotting  at  such  places. 

Fruit  trees  are  subject  to  a  disease  called  the  canker.  It 
•ccasions  the  bark  to  grow  rough  and  scabby,  and  turns  the' 
wood  affected  to  a  rusty  brown  color.  It  will  sometimes  kill 
the  tree  if  not  remedied  in  due  season. 

This  disease  may  arise  from  various  causes;  from  bad 
pruning  ;  from  dead  shoots  left  on  the  tree  ;  from  frosts  kil-> 
ling  the  last  year's  shoots,  &c. 

The  diseased  parts  are  to  be  instantly  cut  away,  till  noth-^ 
ing  but  sound  white  wood  remains  ;  or  if  the  disease  be  mel-e- 
ly  in  the  bark,  the  outer  bark  ratrst  be  cut  away,  and  if  the  in- 
ner bark  be  also  affected,  which  is  to  be  known  by  its  exhib- 
iting small  black  spots  like  the  dots  of  a  pen  ;  cut  all  away  that 
is  thus  affected,  and  let  the  composition  be  applied  as  befoi^e 
directed. 


PRUr^ING    OF    FRUIT    TREES,  H'' 

Fruit  trees  of  the  stone  kind  are  frequently  diseased  with 
»um,  which  arises  from  bad  pruning,  bruises  and  other  caus- 
es. The  diseased  parts  are  to  be  cut  away,  and  the  composi- 
tion applied  as  before.  *  .  <.  *        ^f 

Youna  apple  and  plum  trees,  in  particular,  are  apt  to  get 
Govered'with  what  are  usually  called  lice,  an  mammate  sub- 
stance resembling  an  insect,  of  the  color,  and  somewhat  of  the 
shape  of  a  grain  of  flaxseed,  but  narrower.  \\  here  the  bark 
is  thickly  covered  with  these,  the  growth  of  the  tree  will  be 
very  much  impeded,  and  sometimes  it  wiU  be  killed  it  they  are 
not  removed.  They  are  to  be  scraped  off  ^ylth  a  knife.  Moss 
also  should  be  scraped  off,  as  it  greatly  injures  the  growtli 

of  the  tree.  .  ,    i         •  *        ^r. 

The  washing  the  bodies  of  the  trees  with  the  mixture  ot 
lime  and  water  as  before  directed  is  said  to  be  very  efficacious 
in  keeping  off  moss,  lice  and  other  noxious  substances. 

Perhaps  the  composition  before  mentioned,  would  be  equal- 
ly good,  t  ,  /i  ..r  • 

It  is  a  general  complaint,  that  the  finest  apple  trees  of  thie 
country  have  degenerated,  and  that  many  of  the  best  sorts 
have  entirely  disappeared  from  our  gardens  and  orchards.  It 
would  not  be  difficult  to  show  that  every  successive  grafting 
deteriorates  the  part  engrafted ;  or  to  point  oUt  an  effectual 
method  of  retaining  good  apples  in  this  country  without  the 
trouble  of  engrafting,  as  in  every  perfectly  ripe  apple  there 
will  be  found  one  or  more  seeds  with  flatted  sides.  The  round 
ones  will  produce  the  improved  fruit  from  which  they  are  taken, 
.  and  those  with  the  flatted  sides  will  produce  the  fruit  of  the 
crab  upon  which  the  graft  was  inserted.  If  a  circle  is  drawn 
in  rich  ground,  and  the  flat  sided  seeds  planted  therein,  and 
the  round  seeds  in  the  centre,  the  variation  of  quality  will  ba 
discovered  in  two  or  three  years.  The  first  will  throw  out  the 
leaves  of  a  crab,  and  the  latter  of  an  improved  tree,  distinguish- 
sible  in  shape  and  fibre,  and  with  a  wooly  appearance  ;  and  in 
due  time  the  fruit  of  each  will  putjevery  thing  beyound  doubt. 
It  is  observed  that  the  seeds  of  crabs  (being  originals)  ar» 
mostly  if  not  altogether  round.  J" 

If  this  rule  for  pruning  the  original  qualities  of  fruit  trees, 
should  not  prove  universally  infalible  in  its  operation,  yet  it 
suggests  to  our  consideration,  the  practibility  and  expediency 


*  Forsyth  on  fruit  tr^es. 

ft  See  Farmer's  Assistant,  title  fruil  tree9, 

X  Furopean  Magazine, 


^^®  AfiRICULtURAL    ESSATSi 


tentTortr^L^^^^^^^^^^     ^'Tf^  ^^P^y^"^  more  particular  at-- 
Th^iJu  r%    'T  "^^'^^  •'""  nurseries  are  produced. 
The  method  of  grafting  to  improve  fruit,  cannot  be  practic- 

l?%rr^^'fT^""^^"y  toimpiove  the  qualitvToar 
cider,  without  much  labor,  and  often  too,  for  the  want^  of  thaJ 
science  necessary  to  its  success.'  oi  mai 

i.>/Aw  .^  '^^"  ^''''"  "^^^^  ^'l^  ^^^"  remarked  on  this  sub- 
ject that  the  mismanagement  of  the  apple  tree  begins  in  the 
nursery;  and  first  by  paying  little  or  no  attention  to  the  seed 
andon  ransplantmg  them  by  leaving  suckers  from  the  root^' 
and  by  eaving  branches  for  two  or  threeyears,  Xcl  must  e-' 
Imtlrl  ^'  '"'  away,  when  by  their  increased  growth,  they 
tKilf-  f  ^  "?«r^^"J"rious  amputation:  then  by  squeezing 
tiiem  into  small  ho  es  so  as  to  cramp  the  root,  where  the  holf 
ought  to  extend  at  least  one  foot  beyond  the  longest  roots  and 
the  mould  to  be  made  quite  mellow.     The»  by  neo-lectin^r 

i^rrf  T^'  %  ''  '^  ^f  ^^'"^  ^^'  ^"'«  ^  ^^^""ted  and  defay- 
mg  state  by  suffering  the  ravages  of  insects  upon  them,  or 
from  want  of  giving  them  proper  nourishment,  Ld  bad  prun' 

It  isnot  strange  that  under  such  circumstances,  our  orchards 
are  so  generally  made  up  of  a  mongrel  kind  of  degenerated 
fruij:,  neither  delicious  to  the  taste  nor  capable  of  making  good 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  phUanthropist  as  well  as  the  farmer  to 
endeavor  to  cultivate  the  apple  tr»e  with  diligent  skill,  as  it 
yields  a  fruit  equalled  by  none  in  abundance  and  excellence 
and  ahquor  which  if  properly  made,  is  little  if  any  inferior  to- 
he  best  wme.  Besides  it  would ,  by  discouraging  the  general 
use  of  ardent  spirits,  have  a  tendency  to  promote  the  health 
and  protract  thelives  of  those  who  mi^ghtb^e  useful  fn  socfety: 
wcaltr""^     ^"^'  ^'^'^"^'''''''  ^^  ^  great  saving  of  iiationd 


Making  and  Improving  Cider. 

s.hnnU^'ho '"^  ""'f^'^  *?^  '"^"'l*^^  P'*^^^'  ^"^  a"  the  materials 
should  be  sweet  and  clean,  and  the  straw  free  from  must.  The 
rrwt  should  be  npe,  but  not  rotten;   and  for  making  the  first 


MAK1N»   AN»    I1tfPR0VIN»    CIDER.  119 

rate  cider  the  knotty  and  wormy  ones  should  be  rejected.  The 
apples  thus  selected  should  be  spread  on  a  floor  raised  from  the 
ground,  with  a  cover  over  it,  and  the  sides  enclosed.  Here 
ihey  are  to  lie  for  the  purpose  of  sweating,  by  which  their 
more  watry  parts  are  thrown  off.  Inthis  situation  they  should 
lie  four  or  five  days,  when  the  weather  is  warm  and  dry,  but 
longer  when  wet  and  cold.  They  should  then  be  ground,  and 
if  the  juice  is  left  in  the  pomace  from  12  to  24  hours,  according 
to  the  heat  of  the  weather,  the  cider  will  be  the  richer,  softer 
and  higher  colored.  It  would  be  better,  it  has  been  said,  that 
the  fruit  should  be  all  of  one  kind,  as  the  fermentation  Vvill  be 
more  regular.  Mr.  Deane  directs  that  the  juice  of  the  fruit,  as 
it  comes  from  the  press,  should  be  placed  in  open  headed  casks 
or  vats,  there  to  remain  until  it  undergoes  the  first  fermenta- 
tion. Such  vessels  are  not,  however,  provided  at  our  common 
cider-mills,  but  the  juice  is  put  into  common  casks.  The  ves- 
sels which  receive  the  juice  should  be  perfectly  sweet  and 
clean,  or  the  juice  v.-ill  be  reduced  in  its  quality,  if  not  spoiled. 
For  cleansing  casks',  let  them  be  washed  perfectly  clean  after 
they  are  emptied  of  the  old  cider,  and  be  bunged  up  tight. 
Before  they  are  used  again  take  at  the  rate  of  a  pint  or  more  of 
unslacked  lime  for  a  barrel,  put  it  in,  and  pour  in  three  or  four 
gallons  of  hot  water,  or  more,  for  a  larger  cask.  Shake  it  well, 
and  while  the  lime  is  slacking,  give  it  some  vent,  lest  it  burst 
the  cask.  Let  it  stand  till  cooled,  and  then  rinse  it  with  cool 
water.  If  it  still  has  any  sour  smell,  repeat  the  operation  till 
it  smells  perfectly  sweet.  The  lime  destroys  all  the  acidity 
which  may  be  in  the  cask. 

The  first  and  last  running  of  the  cheese  is  not  so  good  as  the 
rest,  and  should  be  put  in  the  cask  by  itself.  There  should  be 
a  strainer  of  coarse  eloth,  when  it  can  be  had,  instead  of  straw, 
that  is  generally  used,  on  the  bottom  of  the  funnel,  to  keep  out 
the  pomace.  The  next  process  is  the  fermentation.  There 
are  three  fermentations,  the  vinous,  the  acid,  and  the  putrid. 
When  the  fii-et  ceases,  tha  second  begins ;  and  when  that  ceases, 
the  third  begins.  The  first  is  only  necessary  for  cider  ;  and 
care  should  be  taken  to  stop  riH  further  fermentation  as  soon  as 
this  is  over.  This  is  known  by  the  liquor  ceasing  to  throw  up 
little  bubbles  to  the  top ;  then  too,  all  the  pomace  is  raised  up, 
and  if  suflered  to  remain  there,  will  again  sink  to  the  bottom, 
and  render  the  liquor  turbid.  At  this  time  the  barrel  is  usually 
bunged  up,  when  cider  is  intended  for  common  use.  But  for 
the  best  cider,  the  liquor  should  then  be  drawn  off,  not  too  close- 
ly, and  put  into  other  clean  casks,  or  botued  and  closed  tio-ht 
ana  set  awa^r  in  a  cool  cellar.  ° 


120  AGRieULTURAL   ESSAT9. 

While  the  fermentation  is  going  on,  the  cask  should  be  fil- 
led quite  full  with  similar  juice,  that  the  pomace  which  rises  to 
the  top  may  be  thrown  off,  and  not  permitted  to  sink  to  the  bot- 
tom after  the  fermentation  ceases ;  this,  however,  is  not  neces- 
sary, when  the  cider  is  to  be  drawn  off  into  other  casks,  as  a- 
bove  directed. 

"To  prevent  the  fermentation  of  cider,  let  the  cask  be  first 
strongly  fumigated  with  burnt  sulphur,  then  put  in  some  of  the 
cider,  burn  more  sulphur  in  the  cask,  stop  it  tight,  and  shake 
the  whole  up  together ;  fill  the  cask,  bung  it  tight,  and  put  it 
away  in  a  cool  cellar." 

To  refine  cider,  and  give  it  a  fine  amber  color,  the  following 
method  is  much  approved  of;  take  the  whites  of  six  eggs,  with 
a  handful  of  fine  beach  sand,  washed  clean ;  stir  them  well  to- 
gether ;  then  boil  a  quart  of  molasses  down  to  a  candy,  and  cool 
it  by  pouring  in  cider,  and  put  this,  together  with  the  eggs  and 
sand  into  a  barrel  of  cider,  and  mix  the  whole  together.  When 
it  is  thus  managed,  it  will  keep  for  many  years.  A  piece  of 
fresh  bloody  meat  put  into  the  cask,  will  also  refine  the  cider, 
and  serve  for  it  to  feed  on. 

A  dozen  of  sweet  apples,  sliced  mto  a  cask  of  cider,  have 
been  found  advantageous.  Three  quarts  of  good  wheat,  boiled 
and  hulled,  put  into  each  hogshead,  it  is  said,  improves  the  li- 
quor, and  prevents  it  becoming  tart. 

To  clarify  cider  with  isinglass,  pour  into  each  vessel  about  a 
pint  of  the  infusion  of  about  sixty  grains  of  the  most  transpar- 
ent of  this  glue,  in  a  little  white  wine,  (any  common  sour  wine, 
or  well  wrought  cider,  perhaps  will  do  as  well)  and  rain  or  riv- 
er water,  stirred  well  together,  after  being  strained  through  a 
linen  cloth.  This  viscious  substance  spreads  over  the  surface  of 
the  liquor,  and  carries  all  the  dregs  with  it  to  the  bottom. 

"A  quart  of  honey,  or  molasses,  and  «  quart  of  brandy  or  oth- 
er spirits,  added  to  a  barrel  of  cider,  will  improve  the  liquor  ve- 
ry much,  and  will  restore  that  which  has  become  too  flat  and 
insipid." 

To  prevent  its  beconjing  pricked,  or  to  cure  it  when  it  is  so, 
put  a  little  pearl-ashe»,  or  other  mild  alkali  into  the  cask.  "A 
lump  of  chalk,  broken  in  pieces,  and  thrown  in,  is  also  good." 

The  usual  practice  of  boiling  cider  in  the  spring  for  summer 
use,  is  said  in  the  Farmer's  Assistant,  to  be  a  very  bad  one,  es- 
pecially when  boiled  in  brass  kettles  ;  and,  that  if  any  boihng 
be  ever  prooer  for  cider,  it  should  be  as  it  comes  from  the  press. 

**To  cure  oily  cider,  take  one  ounce  of  salt  of  tartar,  and  two 
and  a  half  of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  in  a  gallon  of  milk,  for  a 
hogshead.     To  cure  ropy  cider,  take  six  pounds  of  powdered 


MAKING    AND    IMPROrfNG    QIBRR.  i%l 

allum,  and  stir  it  Into  a  hogsliead  ;  then  rock  it  and  clarify  it. 

To  bring  on  a  fermentation,  the  same  author  directs,  to  take 
three  pints  of  yeast  for  a  hogshead,  add  as  much  jallop  as  wiTl 
lie  on  a  sixpence,  mLx  them  well  with  some  of  the  cider,  beat 
the  mass  up  till  it  is  frothy,  then  pour  it  into  the  cask,  and  stir  it 
up  wel].  Keep  the  vessel  full,  and  the  bung  open,  for  the  froth 
and  foul  stuff  to  work  out.  In  about  fifteen  days  the  froth  will 
be  clean  and  white ;  then  to  stop  the  fermentation,  rack  the  ci- 
der off  into  a  ..clean  vessel ;  add  two  gallons  of  brandy,  or  well 
rectified  whiskey  to  jt,  and  bung  it  up.  Let  the  cask  be  full, 
and  keep  the  vent  hole  open  for  a  day  or  two.  By  this  proce^, 
cider  that  is  poor  and  ill  tasted,  may  be  much  improved.  Let 
it  be  refined  by  some  of  the  methods  before  described. 

Cider  brandy  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  honey,  or  clar- 
ified sugar,  is  much  recommended  by  some,  for  improviiig  com- 
mon cider ;  so  that,  when  refined,  it  may  be  made  as  strong  ajid 
as  pleasant  as  the  most  of  wines.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
all  the  methods  recommended  for  making  and  improving  the 
quality  of  cider  are  expedient,  or  even  practicable,  for  the 
greater  number  of  the  cider  making  farmers  of  our  country, 
by  whom  it  may  be  urged,  that  cider  madeund  prepared  in  the 
common  methods,  may  answer  the  necessary  purposes  of  this 
liquor  ;  but  it  may  be  observed,  that  cider,  when  made  only  for 
family  use,  is  much  more  likely  to  constitute  to  health,  or  at- 
least,  not  to  injure  health,  when  it  is  so  managed  that  its  con- 
stituents are  made  up  of  nothing  feuttht  pure  ripe  juice  of  the 
apple,  perfectly  clarified  in  the  process  of  fermentation,  from 
every  substance  which  may  be  in  any  manner  deleterious  to  the 
human  constitution.  This  should  be  one  great  object  in  im- 
proving this  valuable  liquor,  that  we  may  prepare  it  for  use,  un- 
adulterated witii  any  unripe  or  decayed  juices,  or  other  substan- 
ces, which  may  be  either  offensive  to  the  taste,  or  injurious  t* 
the  health.  This  indeed  is  a  aufficient  object,  to  induce  the 
farmer  to  maJce  improvements  on  the  usual  methods  of  making 
and  preserving  cider,  for  liis  own  use.  But  if  money  is  his  ob- 
ject, it  is  very  certain,  that  the  market  price  of  his  cider,  will 
depend  on  its  good  ©r  bad  qualities.  Cider  has  been  made  in 
Great-Britain  of  such  a  superior  quality,  as  to  command  a  price 
of  sixty  guineas  a  hogshead.  If  such  cider  can  be  made  there, 
it  may  also  here,  where  our  climate  is  believed  to  be  more  fa- 
vorable forthe  production  of  the  best  apples,  and  we  have  all  the 
means  and  the  information,  necessary  for  making  the  best  cider. 

The  apple  called  the  Virginia  crab,  has  been  thought  prefer- 
able to  any  other  in  this  country,  for  cider  ;  as  its  must  *  is  leas 

*  Must — a  word  more  commonly  used  to  signify  new  wine,  or 
wort  for  beer,  is  here  applied  to  the  unfermented  juice  of  apples. 


AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS.  123 

disposed,  ftom  its  great  acidity  to  rise  too  high  in  fermenta- 
tion, than  any  other  known  here.  Were  there  no  other  advan- 
tages, this  simple  one,  it  is  said,  would  render  it  exceedingly 
valuable  to  the  common  farmer,  who  will  be  hardly  brought  to 
pay  attention  to  the  nice  operation  of  fermenting  the  sweeter 
fruits,  but  it  has  almost  every  other  good  property  of  a  cider 
apple.  The  trees  bear  abundantly,  the  fruit  ripens  late,  and  is 
free  from  rot  of  any  kind  ;  the  fruit  is  small  and  hard,  and  there- 
fore bears  the  fall  from  the  tree  without  bruising.  It  grinds 
small,  and  the  pulp  is  remarkably  tough«5  yet  parts  with  its 
juice  readily ;  hence  the  must  runs  from  the  press  very  fine, 
and  being  acid,  it  will  bear  to  stand  in  the  pomace  longer  than 
any  sweeter  apple.  This  fact  deserves  much  attention. 
It  would,  therefore,  be  well  to  preserve  those  apples  for  the 
best  cider,  which  have  qualities  similar  to  the  crab  apple. 

As  good  cider  cannot  be  expected  v/ithout  proper  attention 
to  its  fermentation,  the  following  piinciples  should  be  regard- 
ed :  "Cider  requirss  a  very  gentle  fermentation,  and  ought  to 
be  confined  between  44  ?nd  48  degree's  of  heat,  (by  Faren- 
heit's  thermometer).  Musts,  of  ::il  kinds,  increase  their  heat 
iy  fermentation.  Liquors,  of  all  kinds,  ;vill  not  be  colder  than 
the  air  in  which  th<?y  stand.  It  is  obvious  then,  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult, if  not  impossible,  to  make  good  cider,  when  the  medium 
heat  of  the  day  exceeds  48  degrees  ;  and  it  is  said  that  because 
our  best  cellars  are  50  degrees  of  heat  in  the  latter  end  of  Oc- 
tober, they  are  generally  unfit  for  fermenting  cider ;  and  that, 
therefore,  there  is  a  necessity  of  having  your  first  fermenta- 
tion above  ground,  where  the  heat  of  tno  day  will  have  its  ef- 
fect. Hence  the  known  fact,  that  cider  ferments  most  kindly 
in  the  shade  on  the  north  side  of  your  buildings,  whenever  the 
cool  nights  of  the  fall  reduce  the  medium  heat  of  tlie  day  below 
48  degrees."^  Early  made  cider  intended  for  immediate  use, 
should  be  checked  in  its  fermentation,  from  time  to  time,  and  it 
is  said  by  that  maansjit  will  soon  become  fine,  and  a  very  plea- 
sant drink. 

*  It  is  not  supposed  that  ths  common  practical  farmer  ran  al» 
^ays  direct  his  process  by  the  deg^rces  of  heat  indicated  by  the 
thermometer.  But  the  immediatti  and  rapid  progress  of  the  fer- 
aftntation  of  the  juice,  after  it  comes  fr«m  the  press,  is  a  sufficient 
indication  of  too  g;reat  a  deg^ree  of  heat. 


MAIVAGEMEN'T    OF    WOOD    LAND.  128 

UCOXOMY    OF    MANAGING  WoOD  LaND,    SO    AS    TO    MAKE    DU- 
RABLE   PROVISION     FOR    F¥EL. 

The  practice  of  the  populous  nations  of  Europe,  where 
forests  have  been  cut  off  centuries  ago,  and  who  are  compelled 
to  resort  to  measures  of  the  strictest  economy  to  supply  1  hem- 
selves  with  fuel,  ought  to  have  great  weight  with  us.  France 
in  an  especial  manner,  ought  to  be  looked  up  to  for  lessons  on 
this  subject.  Her  vast  and  thickly  settled  population,  her 
numerous  manufactures,  her  poverty  in  mineral  coal,  the 
eminence  which  she  has  attained  in  all  economical  arts,  entitle 
her  to  great  respect.  It  is  the  practice  of  the  French  people 
not  to  cut  off  their  woods  oftener  than  once  -ii  twenty  or  twen- 
ty-five years,  and  by  law ,  when  they  are  cut  over,  the  owner 
is  obliged  to  cut  the  whole  smooth,  with  the  exception  of  a 
very  few  trees  which  the  officers  of  the  government  had 
marked  to  be  spared  for  longer  growth.  This  example  proves 
that  in  the  opinion  of  the  French  scientific  and  political  men,, 
it  is  expedient,  where  wood  lands  are  cut,  that  they  should  be 
cut  smooth,  in  order  that  the  new  growth  might  start  ^^gether, 
not  overshaded  with  other  trees  of  larger  growth."*  It  has 
been  said  too,  that  the  practical  economists  of  that  country  are 
of  the  opinion  that  the  young  sprouts  will  spring  and  grow 
more  rapidly,  from  the  roots  of  trees  which  are  cut  in  the  full 
vigor  of  their  early  growth,  before  they  have  arrived  even 
very  near  to  their  maturity ;  and  that  therefore  the  greatest 
quantity  of  wood  for  fuel  may  be  produced  from  a  given  quan- 
tity of  land,  by  cutting  the  trees  smooth  and  clean  at  about 
their  middle  size,  and  the  land  inclosed,  so  as  to  keep  off  all 
animals  which  may  injure  the  growth  of  the  young  sprouts. 
By  the  system  of  management  which  now  prevails,  (inFrance)it 
is  computed  that  their  forests  and  the  supplies  which  they  fur- 
nish, will  never  diminish,  and  that  there  wijl  be  always  suffi- 
cient for  domestic  consumptien  for  fuel,  as  well  as  for  archi- 
tectural and  naval  purposes.f 

France,  it  appears,  is  the  only  country  in  Europe,  if  not  in  the 
world,  which  has  been  so  long  improved  with  a  crowded  popu- 
lation,  where  fuel  is  so  plenty  and  cheap,  and  it  is  obv-iously  to 
be  attributed  to  their  peculiar  system  of  managing  their  wood 
i  lands,  which  is  entirely  different  from  that  which  has  general- 
ly hitherto  prevailed  in  the  United  States  of  America. 

Here  the  first  object  in  making  new  settlements,  is  to  cle^ 

*  New  England  Farmer,  title  wood  land  p.  h\Q. 
t  M,  Micour,  on  the  forest  trees  of  North  America. 


J-34  AGRICULTURAL    ES3ATS. 

as  winch  of  the  land  of  its  forest  trees  as  is  practicable,  and  a& 
soon  as  the  roots  are  sufficienly  decayed  to  admit  of  cultivation,to 
plough  and  sow  and  reap,  till  the  rich  vegetable  mould  is  cx- 
Jiausted;  and  then  instead  of  adopting  such  a  mode  of  cultivatioa 
as  may  perpetuate  its  fertility,  they  fly  to  new  forests  for  relief. 
By  this  means,  too  great'a  portion  of  our  lands  are  cleared 
©f  their  trees,  while  vast  tracts  of  those  which  are  called  im- 
proved, often  present  to  our  view  a  miserable  barren  waete. 

The  next  error  vi  that  of  running  over  the  old  forests  that 
remain,  to  pick  out  the  few  scattered  trees  in  a  state  of  decay. 
"By  this  means  it  is  believed,  the  saving  of  such  trees  will 
not  generally  compensate  for  the  loss  which  is  sustained  by 
the  injury  to  young  sprouts,  and  by  the  loss  of  the  more  rapid 
growth  of  the  eproute,  which  the  roots  of  the  trees  might  pro- 
duce when  left  uBshaded  and  undisturbed,  according  to  the 
system  adopted  in  France.  This  practice  of  running  over  eve- 
vy  part  of  the  forest  tcvpick  out  the  decaying  and  dead  trees, 
may  be  justifiable  where  bad  economy  and  other  circumstan- 
ces has,  eo  far  reduced  the  number  of  forest  trees;  as  to 
render  the  entire  consumption  of  the  present  growth  indispen- 
sable, sooner  than  fuel  can  be  expected  from  the  new  growth. 
Such  a  state  of  our  wood  lands,  however,  can  hardly  be  con- 
ceived, and  even  under  any  circumstances  it  would  be  difficuld 
to  show  that  a  more  durable  and  abundant  growth  of  forest 
trees  for  fuel  might  not  be  expected  from  the  wood  landar 
throutrhout  the  United  States,  by  cutting  them  smooth  and 
cleanr especially  clearing  off  all  trees  which  have  arrived  to 
any  considerable  degree  of  maturity ;  reserving  occasionally 
a  few  scattering  ones  which  might  be  wanted  for  timber. 

The  farmer  who  would  appropriate  but  a  small  portion  of 
his  lands  to  forest,  might  find  it  for  his  interest  to  have  a  small 
spot  of  ground  set  apart  for  the  purposes  of  an  artificial  forest. 
Thetocust  is  a  very  valuable  tree  to  cultivate  either  for 
fuel  or  other  purposes.  It  is  said  this  tree  will  grow  well  on 
barren  sandy  land,  and  indeed  on  every  kind  of  dry  soil  where 
the  climate  is  not  too  cold  ;  though  a  sandy  loam  or  gravelly 
loam  is  best  suited  for  it.  The  trees  will  acquire  a  considera- 
ble size  in  fifteen  years,  and  in  about  twenty-five  years  are 
full  grown.  The  timber  is  very  good  for  the  trunions  and 
knees  of  vessels,  for  cogs  for  mills  and  many  other  purposes, 
which  require  solidity  and  durability.  It  will  last  from  fifty  ta 
sixtr  years  for  fence  posts,  and  is  excellent  for  fuel. 

The  following  is  an  easy  method  of  raising  it.  Plant  about 
twenty  trees  on  an  acre  ;  and  when  they  have  got  to  be  about 
twelve  feet  high,  and  their  roots  well  extended,  run  straggling 


MANAGEMENT    OF    WOOD    LAND.  1*^ 

furrows  through  the  ground,  and  whenever  the  roots  are  cut 
hy  the  plough,  new  trees  will  start  up,&  stock  the  whole  ground 
^ith  a  plentiful  growth.  This  tree  has  beenbut  lately  intro- 
duced into  general  use  in  France  ;  and  it  is  there  valued  more 
than  any  other  in  that  country. 

The  Lombardy  poplar  grows  very  rapidly,  and  is  easily 
raised  from  cuttings,  and  when  dried,  answers  well  for  fuel. 
It  is  cultivated  extensively  for  that  purpose  in  some  parts  of 
Europe,  and  has  been  introduced  into  some  parts  of  our  own 
country  for  that  purpose.  It  acquires  its  full  size  in  about 
twenty  years,  by  which  time  ithas  been  said  a  tree  will  contain 
abouthalf  acordof  wood  ;  it  is  believed  it  will  contain  more. 
It  will  not  make  wood  equal  in  quality  to  locust ;  but  as  it 
grows  more  rapidly,  its  inferiority  may  be  compensated  from 
that  circumstance.  In  France  and  Italy  it  is  trimmed  up  for 
beams  and  other  timber  for  building. 

In  most  parts  of  the  United  States  of  America,  wood  for 
tueJ  and  timber  is  yet  plenty,  and  bears  but  a  moderate  price, 
except  in  the  vicinity  of  our  large  towns  and  cities,  and  it  may 
always  be  preserved  so  as  to  supply  all  the  necessary  purpos- 
es of  our  citizens,  if  we  practice  that  system  of  economy  which 
has  so  much  distinguished  the  policy  of  France.  But  we 
must  change  the  conduct  which  has  marked  the  progress  of 
our  new  settlements  generally.  Instead  of  running  over  so 
much  of  our  new  forests,  and  exhausting  the  strong  vegetable 
mould  which  has  been  accumulating  for  ages,  we  must  bestow 
more  labor  in  making  durable  improvements  on  such  as  are 
cleared  ;  and  m  bringing  our  waste  and  barren  land  to  as  hio-h 
a  degree  of  productiveness  as  they  will  bear.  Farmers  wfth 
large  tracts  of  land  half  cultivated,  and  which  yield  little  more 
than  the  value  of  the  labor  bestowed  upon  them,  as  is  too  often 
the  case  in  many  parts  of  our  country,  are  but  poor ;  and  their 
condition  is  not  much  better  than  those  who  earn  their  bread 
by  their  daily  labor.  In  our  older  settlements,  if  our  forests 
were  made  extensive,  and  our  improved  lands  more  highly 
cultivated  it  would  promise  to  our  future  generations  more  du- 
rable blessings. 

The  following  observations  respecting  the  economy  of  using 
luel  is  worthy  of  consideration. 

It  is  well  known  to  philosophers  that  when  water  commen- 
ces boiling  m  the  open  air,  no  additional  fire  can  make  it  any 
hotter.  A  contrary  opinion  prevails,& those  employedin  cooking 
victuals  think  they  cannot  make  the  fire  too  intense.'  The  fu? 
ei  added  for  this  purpose  is,  in  fact  not  only  a  wanton  waste, 
but  by  causing  a  violent  ebulition  it  forces  from  the  victuals^ 


J36  ASRICULTURAL   E39AT3, 

•vvith  the  steam  its  finest  flavor.  Much  fuel  might  therefore  be 
saved  in  Ifamilies,  if  in  cooking  no  more  fuel  were  used 
than  to  keep  the  water  just  at  the  boiling  point,  besides  the 
victuals  would  be  much  better  for  it. 


Fei^ces. 

To  fence  a  form  in  the  most  economical  manner,  and  at  the 
same  time  the  most  secure  and  durable,  is  an  object  of  great 
j^nsideration  to  the  farmer.  While  timber  is  plenty,  but  little 
is  often  thought  of  the  necessity  of  economy  in  this  branch  of 
farming.  But  however  great  the  supply  of  fencing  timber  may 
be,  or  of  stone  suitable  for  wall,  the  labor  necessary  for  furnish- 
jng  the  materials  at  the  places  where  they  may  be  needed,  for 
erecting  the  fenee  and  keeping  it  in  repair,  constitutes  the 
greatest  item  of  expense,  which  relates  to  this  branch  of  farm- 
ing. It  has,  therefore,  been  considered  an  important  object 
in  older  countries,  and  some  parts  of  our  own,  to  substitute 
some  kind  of  fence  which  might  be  more  durable,  and  at  the 
same  time  perhaps  not  more  expensive  than  any  kind  of  wood- 
en fence,  other  than  such  as  are  made  to  grow  around  the  field 
to  be  inclosed.  For  this  purpose,  hedges  have  been  raised, 
composed  of  different  kinds  of  shrubs,  in  some  parts  of  New- 
England  and  the  middle  States.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
white  mulberry  answers  well  tor  this  purpose,  and  is  recom- 
mended as  having  the  peculiar  advantage  of  affording  food  for 
silk-worms,  which  may  be  either  raised  on  the  hedges,  or  the 
leaves  may  be  gathered  to  feed  them.  For  making  white  muV- 
berry  hedges,  Mr.  De  La  Bigane  directs  that  the  plants,  when 
set,  should  have  a  year's  growth,  and  be  cut  off  about  six  inch- 
es above  ground,  that  their  roots  be  taken  off,  and  that  they  be 
set  five  inches  apart  and  eighteen  inches  deep  in  a  ditch  dug 
for  the  purpose,  and  the  earth  thrown  in  upon  them  again. 
This  depth  has  been  thought  too  great,  and  the  distances  be- 
tween them  too  small,  unless  they  are  to  be  afterwards  thinned 
as  they  grow  larger.  He  also  directs  that  the  shoots  be  cut  off 
the  following  spring,  a  little  above  ground,  in  order  that  they 
acquire  more  strength,  and  shoot  forth  more  branches  ;  and 
l^nthey  will  form  a  good  fence  the  third  or  fourth  year,  and 


SOOB  grow  so  thick  as  to  be  totally  impassable  by  any  cattle.- 
fie  further  observes,  that  the  branches  must  be  twisted  and  wo- 
ven tog-ether  much  earlier  than  those  of  thorn.  The  young 
plants,  when  set  out,  are  to  be  kept  clear  of  w^eeds,  and  pro^ 
tected  from  cattle.  Mulberry  hedges  may  be  made  from  slips, 
or  cuttings,  taken  from  mulberry  frees^;  and  in  that  case,  should 
be  set  as  deep  as  has  been  recommended  for  sets.  Mr.  Nich- 
olson, in  his  Farmer's  Assistant,  remarks,  that  the  mulberry 
tree  is  well  worth  raising,  not  only  for  its  fruit  and  use  in  feed- 
ing silk-worms,  but  also  for  its  timber  and  for  fuel,-as  it  grows 
very  rapidly,  and  is  generally  well  adapted  to  our  climate.  He- 
further  observes  that  it  grows  well  in  a  deep  dry  soil,  that  is 
moderately  rich,  and  that  it  may  be  raised  from  the  seeds,  or 
by  cuttings  or  slips.  Taking  into  consideration  its  use  for  hedg- 
es and  fuel,  perhaps  it  might  be  a  useful  substitute  for  theLom- 
bardy  poplar.  • 

When  hedges  are  to  inclose  wet  land,  they  should  be  set  on- 
the  bank  of  a  ditch,  made  around  the  field  for  that  purpose. 

The  thorn,  the  apple,  and  the  willow,  are  most  used  for  the 
purposes  of  hedges.  But  it  is  said  that  the  English  thorn  is  apt 
to  be  killed  by  the  winters,  in  the  northern  parts  of  New-Eno-- 
land ;  and  the  same  author  says,  that  the  difficulty  in  making 
the  seeds  of  our  own  thorn  vegetate,  it  is  believed  can  be  easi- 
ly overcome,  by  their  being  put  into  hot  water,  or  in  muriatic 
acid  gas  mixed  with  water.  *  To  raise  the  thorn  from  the  seed 
it  should  be  sown  in  the  fall,  in  u  warm  rich  soil,  ihnd  if  it  has 
a  southern  exposure  it  will  be  better,  and  at  the  depth  of  about 
two  inches.  After  they  have  come  up,  they  should  be  trans- 
planted into  other  beds,  and  kept  clear  of  weeds  until  they  are 
set  out  in  the  hedge,  which  should  be  at  the  height  of  about 
two  feet.  Mr.  Miller  has  directed  that  the  sets  of  them,  when 
planted  out,  be  of  the  thickness  of  a  common  goose  quill ;  that 
they  be  planted  when  newly  taken  up,  with  their  tops  cut 'off  a- 
bout  six  inches  above  ground  ;  and  that  they  be  bedded  in  the 
richest  mould  dug  out  of  the  ditch.  When  two  rows  are  set 
together,  that  each  plant  be  put  at  the  distance  of  about  a  foot 
but  when  only  one  row  is  set  tljey  should  stand  closer  The 
same  author  observes,  that  they  should  be  hoed  and  kept  clean 
ot  weeds  during  summer,  and  after  having  one  summer  growth 
should  be  cut  oft  early  next  spring,  at  the  distance  of  about  an 
inch  from  the  ground,  which  ^vill  make  them  send  out  stron^rer 
shoots  and  help  their  growth.  When  the  hedge  is  eight'or 
nine  years  old,  it  should  be  slashed  by  cutting  them  half  through 

*  See  essay  on  the  germination  of  plants. 


128  AttRiC^t^URAL  ESSAYS. 

and  weaving  them  together,  trimming  off  the  superffuouW 
branches,  early  in  the  spring. 

Mr.  L.  Hommedieu  says,  that  apple  seeds  in  the  pomace, 
strewed  along  and  buried  in  the  top  of  the  banks  of  ditches 
made  for  hedges,  and  kept  from  the  cattle  until  they  have  at- 
tained sufficient  strength,  will  answer  very  well  for  this  pur- 
pose :  and  as  the  cattle  will  be  continually  biting  off  the  young 
shoots,  it  will  make  the  hedge  grow  more  bushy,  thick,  and 
strong. 

Hedges,  in  dry  land,  may  do  well  without  ditches.  Where 
no  ditch  is  used,  the  hedge  perhaps  may  be  better  set  in  two 
rows,  about  a  foot  apart.  The  young  hedge  should  be  protect- 
ed from  cattle.  But  to  save  the  expense  of  making  a  fence  for 
the  purpose  of  protecting  the  young  hedge,  it  would  be  best, 
when  circumstances  will  admit,  tocommenc^  the  setting  of  the 
hedge  around  a  field  which  is  intended  for  such  improvements- 
as  to  exclude  cattle  the  most  of  the  time  which  may  be  necessa- 
ry to  raise  the  hedge  above  the  reach  6f  their  ravages. 
Where,  for  instance,  a  rotation  of  crops  is  intended,  of  potatoes, 
pease,  wheat,  and  clover,  it  will  be  no  inconvenience  to  keep 
cattle  from  such  a  field  a  sufficient  time  for  the  hedge  to  arrive 
to  maturity.  If  a  hedge  is  intended  around  a  moadow,  cattle 
will  not  be  likely  to  injure  it,  if  they  are  turned  in  to  feed  only 
when  there  is  plenty  of  grass. 

One  objection  to  hedges  for  fence  is,  that  in  a  eountry  s6 
young  as  the  United  States^  the  system  of  improving  particular 
tractJof  land,  is  not  so  settled  and  matured,  as  to  render  it  suf- 
ficiently certain  what  may  be  the  permanent  dimensions  of 
particular  inclosures,  and  where  a  durable  fence  may  be  expe- 
dient. But  the  better  the  science  of  agriculture  is  understood, 
the  more  practicable  it  will  be  to  fix  durable  dimensions  to  cer- 
tain fields.  For  it  is  very  certain  that  the  scientific  farmer  can 
BO  direct  his  labors  as  to  render  the  same  field  permanently 
productive,  and  the  culture  of  it  profitable,  without  removing 
any  part  oi  the  fence  which  incloses  it. 

Hedges  are  believed,  by  some  who  have  used  them,  to  be 
cheaper  than  any  wooden  fences.  And  v/hen  once  they  are 
mad*^,  it  is  certain  they  are  more  durable,  and  need  but  little 
repairs.  It  is  believed,' too,  that  they  are  a  much  better  protec- 
tion to  crops  than  wooden  fences,  as  they  are  usually  made* 
They  are  insufficient  only  against  hogs ;  and  they  should  al- 
ways be  kept  in  inclosures  made  for  the  purpose. 

Where  the  land  is  very  wet,  a  ditch  two  feet  or  two  and  a 
half,  and  about  two  feet  deep,  with  a  steep  bank,  may  answer 
well  without  a  hedge  on  the  top.    But  a  small  hedge,  in  such 


PENCSS.  12^ 

places,  would  be  preferable ;  and  it  is  very  easily  made  from 
the  shrubby  kind  of  willow  that  is  found  growing  by  the  side  of 
many  of  our  streams. 

For  making  the  hedge  of  the  willow,  whether  in  the  bank  of 
the  ditch,  or  any  other  suitable  place,  stakes  of  a  proper  length 
are  to  be  cut  and  set  a  considerable  depth  in  the  ground,  about 
a  foot  apart,  and  they  will  take  root  and  grow,  and  new  twigs 
will  sprout  out  from  every  part  and  soon  form  them  into  a  thick 
bushy  hedge.  This,  when  sufficiently  grown,  should  be  manag-- 
ed  as  other  hedges.  The  sets  may  be  two  or  two  and  a  half 
feet  long,  when  stuck  for  the  hedge. 

The  willow  hedge  is  very  easily  raised  from  sets  or  cuttings;^ 
which  readily  take  root  either  in  the  spring  or  fall. 

When  land  naturally  wet,  is  situated  by  the  highway,  one 
pretty  wide  and  deep  ditch  made  on  the  line  between  the  field 
and  highway,  witK  a  hedge  of  willows  on  its  bank,  is  preferable 
to  any  other  fence,  and  should  be  commenced  by  our  farmers 
as  soon  as  practicable,  as  it  would  contribute  to  the  double  ad- 
vantage of  improving  both  the  field  and  the  road,  by  drawing 
off  the  excess  of  water,  besides  making  a  useful  and  durable^ 
fence. 

If  the  farmer  has  rail  timber  in  plenty,  and  prefers  using^t,' 
he  will  find  that  posts  set  on  the  bank  of  the  ditch,  witbnot 
more  than  two  rails  inserted  in  them,  will  make  a  sufiicient 
fence.  The  post  to  be  set,  would  always  be  much  more  dura- 
ble if  the  end  of  it  to  be  set  in  the  ground  is  burnt  so  as  to- 
make  them  black. 

The  farmer  who  would  object  to  hedges  for  fence,  because 
they  cannot  so  soon  become  efficacious  for  the  purpose,  should 
reflect  that  it  is  the  duty  of  the  good  citizen  to  direct  his  labors 
so  as  to  make  the  most  lasting  improvement  to  his  lands  ;  and 
that  we  live  as  well  for  posterity  as  ourselves. 

I  have  just  now  been  favored  with  the  perusal  of  Mr.  Silli- 
man's  remarks  on  hedge  rows,  taken  from  his  tiavels  in  Eng- 
land, and  made  on  a  personal  view  of  them  while  in  that  coun- 
try. They  are,  says  he,  the  most  perfect  fence  that  can  be  im- 
agined, being  at  once  impervious  to  small  animals,  and  impass- 
able by  large  ones ;  incapable  of  being  pulled  up,  overthrown, 
or  disordered,  and  for  many  years  needing  no  repairs  ;  they 
also  form  a  most  beautiful  feature  in  the  scenery  of  the  country^ 
especially  when  they  are  filled  up  by  flowers,  which  is  more  or 
less  the  fact  very  generally ;  the  fields  are  a  rich  garment,  and 
the  hedge  rows  form  the  embroidered  edge  or  border.  In  some 
instances  the  hedge  rows  are  placed  on  mounds  or  dvkes  of 
earth,  which  in  general  woujd  form  a  competent  icclosure.  oil 


130  AGRIcyLTUBAL   ESSAYS. 

themselves  ;  especially  as  they  are  accompanied  by  ditches, 
out  of  which  the  earth  which  formed  them  had  been  takea. 
In  many  instances,  and  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  gentle- 
men's houses,  these  mounds,  or  dykes,  are  sodded  with  great 
neatness,  so  that  the  verdure  is  as  perfect  as  their  almost 
perpendicular  sides  are  in  the  field  ;  and  when  upon  the  top  of 
these  rural  parapets,  the  fine  hedge  row  rises,  trimmed  with 
perfect  precision,  and  forming  the  most  elegant  green  fringe,  it 
is  scarcely  possible  to  imagine  any  thing  of  the  kind  more  grat- 
ifying. Around  some  plantations,  the  mound  and  hedge  row 
together,  estimating  from  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  form  a  fenfce 
of  ten  or  twelve  feet  in  height. 

The  length  of  time,  and  attention  to  make  hedges,  or  live 
fence,  is  a  discouraging  circumstance.  The  expense  of  trim- 
ming and  keeping  a  live  fence  in  order,  is  thought  by  some 
who  have  used  them  in  this  country,  to  exceed  that  of  keeping 
an  ordinary  rail  or  board  fence  in  repair.  Should  a  very  unru- 
ly animal  break  through  a  good  live  fence,  or  an  evil  disposed 
person  cut  their  way  through,  a  gap  is  left,  which  must  be  filled 
by  a  dead  fence  of  some  sort,  until  a  new  growth. 

Notwithstanding  the  good  properties  of  this  kind  offence,  it 
is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  farmer  who  has  a  plenty  of  tlirifty 
growing  timber,  or  a  suitable  quantity  of  loose  stones  within  a 
reasonable  distance,  will  undertake  the  cultivation  of  live 
fences.  But  there  are  farms,  and  even  extensive  tracts  of 
lanu  in  our  country,  in  which  there  are  no  stones  suitable  for 
walling :  and  where  fencing  timber  too  has  become  scarce. 
In  such  places  live  fences  and  ditches  are  the  last  and  only 
resort.  And  when  live  fences  have  become  indispensable,  or 
are  likely  soon  to  become  so,  they  ought  to  be  set  about  before 
the  old  stock  of  fencing  timber  is  gone  entirely;  and  by  mak- 
ing a  short  piece  every  year,  a  knowledge  of  their  usefulness 
may  be  acquired,  as  well  as  the  manner  of  making  and  taking 
care  of  them. 

A  good  fence  may  be  made  by  running  a  ditch  around  the 
field,  whether  it  be  a  dry  or  wet  soil,  and  on  the  top  of  the 
mound  which  is  raised  by  the  excavations  of  the  ditch,  to  set 
pickets  of  some  durable  timber,  about  three  or  four  inches 
apart,  the  height  of  the  pickets  need  only  be  about  three  feet 
above  the  top  of  the  mound,  and  if.it  is  four  or  five  inches  in 
diameter,  it  wuU  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  guard  against  or- 
dinary animals  of  any  description.  Such  a  fence  would,  per- 
haps,"rQquire  less  timber  than  any  other  wooden  fence, 


Teams, 

The  superior  advantages  of  horses  in  teams,  are  their  quick- 
ness of  motion,  and  greater  docility;  and  their  disadvantages 
are,  their  greater  expense  in  raising  and  keeping,  and  extra 
expense  of  harness,  and  being  of  no  value,  when  their  service 
is  at  an  end.  The  advantages  of  oxen,  are  said  to  be  their  bemg 
less  expensive  in  raising  and  keeping,and  their  value,  after  their 
time  of  service  expires ;  and  their  disadvantages  are,  their 
slowness  of  motion,  and  their  being  less  tractable. 

The  following  calculations,  respecting  the  relative  value, 
utility  of  horse  and  ox  teams,  is  worthy  of  consideration :  "Say 
that  a  good  span  of  farming  horses  are  worth,   at   four  years 
old,  one  hundred    dollars  :    at  fourteen  years  from  that  time, 
they  are  worth  little  or  nothing  ;  of  course,  another  sum  of  one 
hundred  dollars,  at  the  expiration  of  that  time,  be  expended  in 
the  purchase  of  a  new  span.     This  sum,  laid  out  at  the  end  of 
fourteen  years,  is  about  equal  to  fifty  dollars  paid  down.      In 
order,  therefore,  to  keep  the  span,  a  capital  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  dollars,  is  necessary ;  which  is  equal  to  an  expenditure  of 
ten  doUara  and  fifty  cents  a  year.      A  yoke  of  oxen,  at  four 
years  old,  are  worth,  say  sixty  dollars  ;    and  allowing  them 
not    to    depreciate  in  value,  till  turned   off    for    fattening, 
they  require    an    expenditure    of  four    dollars    and    twen- 
ty cents   a  year,  as  the  interest  of  the  capital,  laid  out  for 
them.      Say  that  the  horses  will   cost  fifteen  dollars  a  year 
more  than  the    oxen,  to  keep  them,  and  provide  harness  for 
them.     Say  also,  that  they  do  a  hundred  days  work  in  a  year, 
andthat  the  oxen,  vorking  a  quarter  slower,  require  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-three  days  to  perform  the  same  labor ;   then  if 
one  hand  only,  is  ernployi'd  with  the  oxen,  his  Avages  and  board 
dunng  the  extra  thivty-three  days,  at  fifty  cents  per  day,  would 
stillleave  a  balance  m  favor  of  the  osen,  of  four  dollars  and 
eighty  cents,  for  the  year's  v/otk  ;  but  if  they  should  require  a 
boy  to  dnve,  v/hile  another  handh^ide  the  plough,  then  the  bal- 
ance would  be  very  considerahb  in  favor  of  the  horses. 

Perhapg  on  smooth  laads,  atid  for  carrying  loads  to  market 
at  a  distance,  horses  may  be  preferable.  But  oxen  are  certain- 
ly preferable  for  husbandry  in  maay  respects  ;  they  are  cheap- 
er than  Wse?,  as  it  regards  tl^b  food,  the  method  of  keeping 
tiieni,  the  superiorxty  of  their  dung,  their  being  subject  to  fewer 
ciiseases,and  their  suffering  no  loss  of  value  by  W.  Two  oxen  in 
a  plough  require  not  a  driver  more  than  a  span  of  horses.  Lord 
Skame3says,thattheDutch,atthe  capeofGoodHope,plouffh  with 
oxen,  Without  a  driver,  and  early  exercise  them  to  a  quicl  pa^-e 


132  AGRieUIiTURAL  ESSAYS. 

SO  as  to  equal  horses,  both  in  the  plough  and  in  the  waggon: 
that  the  people  of  Malabar  use  no  other  animal  for  the  plough, 
nor  for  burdens ;  and  that  about  Pondichery,  no  beasts  of  bur- 
den are  to  be  seen  but  oxen.  He^urther  remarks,  that  if  oxen 
were  more  generally  used,  the  article  of  beef,  candles,  and 
leather,  three  essential  necessaries  of  life,  would  become  much 
cheaper.  In  some  parts  of  Great-Britain,  they  are  used  sin- 
^\y  in  carts,  and  two  in  a  plough,  with  cords,  without  a  driver. 
It  has  been  observed  by  Mr.  Livingston,  of  New- York,  that  if 
we  may  argue  the  utility  of  a  practice,,  from  its  extent,  we  must 
prefer  drawing  by  the  horns,  to  any  other  mode  ;  that  nine 
tenths  of  Europe  make  their  cattle  draw  in  this  way,  and  from 
what  he  had  seen  of  this  performance,  he  was  persuaded  it  was 
to  be  preferred  to  the  yoke.  He  observes,  that  a  bull's  strength 
appears  to  be  placed  in  his  neck,  and  in  drawing  in  this  way, 
the  whole  of  it  is  exerted ;  his  motion  is  not  impeded,  or  his 
skin  chafed,  as  it  is  by  the  yoke." 

In  the  mountains  of  Savoy,  he  observes,  he  saw  many  cattle, 
chiefly  cows,  ^  drawing  by  the  horns,  not  in  carts,  but  in  wag- 
gons.    He  observes,  however,  that  our  cows   are  in  general 
inuch  smaller  than  those  usually  worked  in  Europe.     That  al- 
though yokes  are  used  in  some  parts  of  Italy,  they  differ  from 
ours.    Instead  of  bows,  they  have  four  flat  pieces  of  wood 
which  hang  from  each  side  of  the  yoke,  and  are  about  ten  mch- 
es  long,  and  hollowed  so  as  to  fit  the  sides  of  the  neck,  and  so 
thick  as  to  admit  a  rope  or  chain  to  pass  through  them,  by  which 
they  are  fixed  to  the  yoke  ;  and  each  pair  of  tkem  are  united 
by  a  chain  or  rope  under  the  oxen's  neck.     The  draft,  in  this 
case,  he  tjbserves,  is  by  the  top  of  the  shoulders  only,   and  that 
he  believes  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  our  bows  on  that  accouot, 
because  the  bow,  by  pressing  the  shoulder  blade,  impedes  the 
motion  of  the  animal.     For  holding  back,  whether  thoy  draw 
by  these  yokes,  or  by  the  horns,  the  end  of  the  whole  projects 
considerably  by  the  heads  of  the  c  .ttle,  and  teems  up  very 
much.     To  this  is  fixed  a  leather  strsp  that  goes  round  the 
horns  of  the  oxen,  so  that  they  keep  back  the  weight  by  the 
horns,  and  with  much  more  esse  than  ours  do  by  twisting 
their  necks.     In  England  they  ere  v/orked  in  a  harness,  which 
were  it  not  more  expensive  and  more  troublesome,  it  is  said, 
ought  to  be  preferred  to  the  method  practised  here.    The 

*  This  practice,  and  raany  others,  which  the  American  farmer 
may  be  disposed  to  deride,  though  in  some  future  period  of  our  his- 
tory, his  circumstances  may  render  it  expedient  to  adopt  from  ne- 
cessity, if  from  no  other  cause. 


TEAM5.. 


im 


elownesg  of  oxen,  which  is  the  greatest  objection  to  their  util- 
ity in  husbandry,  is  doubtless  owing  in  part  to  their  weight 
and  natural  inactivity,  and  in  part,  too,  by  overloading  thera 
with  burdens  that  are  made  to  bear  constantly  and  heavily  up- 
on their  necks.  But  it  appears  that  these  causes  are  in  some 
measure  remedied  in  Europe,  by  different  modes  of  draft,  some 
of  which  have  been  described  ;  and  by  exercising  them  to  a 
quick  pace.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Sussex  Oxen,  in  Eng- 
land, have  beaten  horses  at  the  plough  in  the  deepest  clay. 
The  Ilartfordshire  and  Devonshire  oxen  there  are  recommend- 
ed as  the  most  speedy.  It  is  well  known  that  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  our  oxen  with  respect  to  their  agility  and  docility, 
and  it  would  be  an  object  worthy  of  much  attention  for  our  farm- 
ers to  seek  for  such  ones  for  farm  labor,  that  excel  \v  those  pro- 
perties. Some  oxen  to  be  selected  from  our  common  stock  may 
be  found  that  will  perform  nearly  double  the  labor  on  account 
of  possesing  these  properties  in  a  superior  degree.  When  by 
experience  and  observation  the  farmer  may  discover  a  particu- 
lar breed  of  cows  whose  bull  calves  are  such  generally  as  to 
make  oxen  possessing  these  peculiar  properties,  he  would  do 
well  to  keep  and  improve  them  for  that  purpose. 

The  choice  of  the  most  convenient  carts  for  the  purposes  of 
husbandry,  is  a  subject  connected  with  thcvt  of  teaming. 

It  is  said  that  some  of  the  best  British  farmers  generally  use 
one  horse  carts  instead  of  wagons  on  their  farms  ;  and  they 
are  particularly  recommended  by  Mr.  Young,  for  this  purpose, 
as  being  on  the  whole  more  convenient  and  cheaper.  In  Ire- 
land, the  wheel  car,  as  it  is  called,  is  almost  imiversally  used 
on  farms,  and  for  transporting  on  the  highways.  Each  horse 
in  that  carriage,  draws  from  ten  to  twenty  hundred  weight,  ac- 
cording to  the  state  of  the  roads ;  and  it  is  said  there  that  one 
animal  drawing  by  itself,  in  a  car  or  cart,  can  as  easily  draw 
eight  hundred  weight,  as  two  can  draw  twelve  hundred,  when 
put  together  in  a  waggon.  The  reason  assigned  is,  that  in  a 
cart  the  horse  cS.rries  a  part  of  the  load  on  his  back ;  and  ia 
drawing,  his  exertions  are  not  baffled  by  the  jostling  and  une- 
qual exertions  of  another.  It  is  objected  against  carts,  tbat  they 
press  too  heavily  on  the  horse,  or  oxen,  when  going  downhill, 
particularly  when  carrying  a  top-heavy  load,  and  that  they  will 
incline  to  tilt  up,  when  going  up  hill,  with  such  load.  These 
-defects  have,  however,  been  in  some  degree  obviated,  by  a  con- 
trivance fixed  in  front  of  the  box,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  its 
fore  end  when  going  down  hill,  and  of  sinking  it,  when  up,  so 
that  in  either  case,  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  load  will  not  be 
fKaterially  altered,  from  what  it  is  on  level  ground.  In  the 
M 


134  AGRICULTURAL  ESSAYS. 

construction  of  the  body  of  the  cart,  the  essential  points  are  t© 
fit  it  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  mostly  to  be  used  ;  to  place 
so  much  of  it  before  the  axletree,  as  that,  when  filled,  about  a 
fifth  of  the  weig-htof  its  cotitents  will  rest  on  the  horse;  and 
that  it  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  tilted  up,  to  empty  its  load. 

To  those  farmers  in  our  country,  who  keep  so  many  cattle,  as 
always  to  have  a  sufficient  number  of  both  hores  and  oxen,  for 
any  purposes  of  husbandry,  the  introduction  of  the  one  horse 
cart,  may  be  considered  as  an  object  of  minor  importance.  But 
there  are  in  our  country,  as  in  all  other,  a  large  class  of  the  cul- 
tivators of  the  soil,  who  find  it  necessary  to  use  much  economy 
in  the  use  of  a  team.  In  older  countries,  as  well  as  in  some 
parts  of  our  own,  this  class  of  farmers  have  found  the  one  horse 
cart  to  be  one  of  the  most  useful  implements  of  husbandry.  I 
have  been  informed  by  a  farmer,  who  made  the  study  of  agricul- 
tural economy  an  important  object,  that  with  a  single  horse 
and  horse  cart  and  other  implements  of  tillage,  he  performed  all 
the  team  work  on  his  farm,  which  afforded  him  all  the  necessa- 
ry produce  for  the  support  of  his  family,  and  that,  with  this 
team,  he  found  it  both  convenient  and  profitable,  to  transport 
both  his  hay  and  fuel.  The  wagons  in  common  use,  are  doubt- 
less best,  and  indeed  necessary,  for  those  cultivators  who  pur- 
sue the  business  of  Arming  on  a  large  scale  ;  or  who  have  occa- 
sion to  carry  produce,  or  other  heavy  articles  any  considerable 
distance  ;  though  farmers  of  this  description,  would  frequently 
find  the  common  horse  cart  a  very  convenient  and  profitable 
vehicle  for  many  purposes.  It  would  therefore  be  a  great  im- 
provement, in  rural  economy,  to  introduce  the  one  horse  cart 
into  general  use  among  the  farmers  ;  experience  will  soon  at- 
test its  numerous  advantages.  That  class  of  cultivators  par- 
ticularly, who  improve  only  a  garden,  or  a  few  acres  of  land, 
will  thereby  save  themselves  from  much  expense,  as  well  as  the 
great  delay  and  inconvenience,  which  must  stccrue  from  de- 
pending on  farmers  to  perform  for  them  the  numerous  services, 
which  they  might  themselves  perform  with  this  cart  and  a  sin- 
gle horse,  and  one  too,  which  might  be  purchased  for  a  small 
price,  while  he  would  possess  all  the  properties  necessary  t© 
carry  into  effect  an  economical  and  profitable  plan  of  husband- 
ry, on  a  small  scale. 

The  following  improvement  in  the  harnessing  of  horses  for 
the  wagon,  so  as  to  do  less  injury  to  roads  in  travelling,  has 
J)een  suggested  to  the  citizens  of  the  State  of  New- York,  by 
direction  of  the  board  of  agriculture.  Let  the  double  whippel- 
tree  and  neck-yoke  be  so  long  that  each  horse  may  travel  in  a 
Jirte  directly  forward  of  the  wheels.    Travelling  in  this  manner- 


HORSES. 


135 


it  is  said,  would  entirely  prevent  all  ruts,  as  the  horse's  feet 
would  beat  down  and  level  the  small  track  cf  each  preceding 
wagon ;  and  in  case  some  ruts  or  holes  should  begin  to  makf^ 
their  appearance,  the  horses,  to  avoid  them,  would  immediately 
turn  to  the  right  or  left,  and  the  wheels  of  course  would  follow: 
the  consequence  of  which,  would  be  smooth,  level,  and  dura- 
ble roads,  with  half  the  expense  for  repairs  which  is  now  laid 
out  upon  them. 

If  the  advantages  which  are  suggested,  will  result  from  such 
a  constructed  harness  as  has  been  above  described,  the  gener- 
al use  of  them,  especially  on  great  market  roads,  ought  to  be 
introduced  ;  as  a  partial  use  of  them,  would  not  effect  the  ob- 
ject. 

The  above  remarks,  respecting  teams,  are  submitted  to  the 
consideration  of  the'American  farmer,  without  any  farther  com- 
ment than  barely  the  suggestion  that,  they  are  the  result  of  the 
observations  and  experience  of  practical  farmers,  in  some  parts 
of  our  own  country,  and  in  Europe,  where  every  branch  of  hus- 
bandry has  been  gradually  progressing  in  improvement,  fot 
five  hundred,  perhaps  for  one  tliousand  years. 


Horses. 

The  raising  a  good  breed  of  horses,  is  an  object  worthy  of' 
the  attention  of  the  American  farmer. 

The  opinion  that  the  value  of  the  colt  depends  on  the  gcod 
properties  of  the  horse,  has  by  universal  experience  been  prov- 
ed to  be  incorrect.  The  laws  which  govern  the  generative 
powers  in  every  animal,  with  which  we  are  acquainted,  evi- 
dently give  to  the  female,  its  full  share  in  characterizing  the 
issue.  Common  observation  confirms  the  truth  of  this  fact. 
If  farmers  would  secure  a  good  breed  of  colts,  they  would  be 
more  likely  to  succeed  in  that  business,  if  they  would  keep 
mares  for  that  purpose  which  have  such  properties  only  as  are 
essential  to  render  a  horse  valuable  ;  notwithstanding  it  may 
be  expedient  to  preserve  a  stud  which  has  valuable  properties- 
But  the  only  reliance  which  most  farmers  have  upon  the  value 
and  properties  of  the  sire,  too  often  disappoints  their  expecta- 
tions, and   subjects  them  to  great  expense,  as  the  price  of  the? 


^3S  ACRICgLirjlAL.    ESSAYS. 


fial.  It  has  often  happened  that  the  colts,  begotten  in  a  seasoTi 
will  hordiy  ui  the  time  of  weaning  pay  for  the  use  of  their  sire! 
Tbc;  raising  of  a  valuable  breed  of  stud-horses  should  be  en- 
couraged;  but  the  interest  of  the  farmers  would  certainly  be 
better  promoted,  m  raising  a  valuable  breed  of  horses,  if  thev 
would  make  it  an  object  to  keep  no  mares  for  breeding  but 
such^as  possess  the  properties  which  constitute  a  valuable 

It  ha^  been  usual  to  work  breeding  mares  through  the  great- 
est  part  of  the  year,  laying  them  aside  only  a  week  or  tw^o  be- 
lore  toaling,  and  during  the  summer  season,  when  giving  suck 
to  the  young  foal.  By  this  means,  the  strength  and  vigor  of 
the  mother  is  not  only  weakened,  but  the  size  and  powers  of 
tne  toal  are  often  diminished  by  the  exertions  of  the  mother, 
when  kept  at  work.  It  is  believed  by  some  farmers,  that  from 
three  months  before  foaling,  until  the  colt  is  weaned  at  seven 
months  old,  the  dam  should  not  work. 

.Jr!}l  ^^^1^'f  "^^n^ethod  of  weaning  is  preferable,  whencircum^ 
stances  render  it  practicable.  Suppose  the  colt  about  sever! 
months  6.U  tr.e  li^t  cf  J?.]i'i-;y ;  put  a  haltdi-  oil  it,  and  tis  it  to 
the  manger,  by  the  side  of  the  dam.  Loosen  it  and  let  it  suck 
two  or  three  times  each  day,  for  about  a  week.  Afterwards 
continue  it  tied  by  the  side  or  the  dam,  watering  it  three  times 
a  day,  by  carrying  water  into  the  stable.  Gradually  teach  it  to 
drink  milk,  to  eat  bran  mixed  with  water,  patatoes,  and  other 
succulent  food;  and  to  give  this  kind  of  food,  together  with 
good  hay,  until  grass  time.  It  should  always  have  a  good  dry 
bed  to  sleep  on.  The  second  winter  it  should  be  kept  tender- 
ly also,  and  well  fed  with  potatoes,  good  hay,  &c.  but  should 
eat  no  oats  or  corn,  until  it  is  at  least  three  years  old.  A  colt 
should  never  be  allowed  to  be  poor  in  flesh. 

It  is  believed  that  the  superiority  of  the  English  breed  ofhor- 
ges,  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  same  reasons,  which  have  in 
these  essays  been  assigned  for  the  extraordinary  breeds  of 
Lnglish  neat  cattle.* 

It  is  probably  owing  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  principally,  to 
the  succulent  and  other  food,  moie  nutritive  than  dry  dav  giv- 
en to  their  horses  through  the  winter,  by  means  of  which  they 
keep  them  growing  the  whole  time  from  the  foal,  till  they  ar- 
rive to  the  period  assigned  by  nature,  at  which  they  attain  the 
utmost  size  and  maturity  which  1  heir  nature  and  constitution 
Will  admit.    It  IS  doubtless  by  this  moans,  that  the  English 

^  Soe  e«say  oo  Neat  cattle. 


Breed  of  horses  exceed  the  American  more  in  size  than  in  any 
other  qualities  which  may  be  thought  to  enhance  their  value. 
If  the  Americans  would  improve  their  breed  of  horses,  they 
had  much  better  adopt  the  same  means  which  they  do  in 
Great-Britain  to  improve  theirs,  than  to  pay  the  enormous  tax 
for  that  purpose  which  they  often  do  to  the  importers  of  stud 
horses  from  that  country. 

To  make  horses  profitable,  they  should  be  kept  well,  and 
not  worked  beyond  their  strength.  Grain  is  most  efficacious 
when  given  to  a  horse  either  ground  or  boiled. 

When  horses  by  long  journeys,  or  otherwise,  have  the  skin 
rubbed  off  their  backs,  a  little  dry  white  led  occasionally 
sprinkled  over  the  raw  flesh,  will  soon  heal  the  horse. 

Persons  on  journeys  might  well  carry  some  of  this  article 
With  them  for  this  purpose.  When  the  withers  of  the  horse 
are  wrung  and  swelled  by  means  of  bad  saddles  or  otherwise, 
the  swelling  may  be  allayed  by  washing  the  part  with  brine 
and  with  salt  and  black  soap  mixed  together,  applied  to  the 
swelling.  Any  restringent,  such  as  allum  beat  up  with  the 
white  of  eggs,  is  also  said  to  be  efficacious. 

There  has  been  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the 
Relative  advantages  of  horses  and  oxen  for  the  use  of  the  farm ; 
and  it  is  of  importance  to  farmers  that  they  decide  correctly 
in  this  particular.*  The  marks  of  a  good  horse  are,  a  full 
breast,  high  neck,  a  strong  black  lively  eye,  stiff  dock,  full 
buttocks,  ribs  reaching  near  to  the  hips  and  good  hoofs. 

In  first  breaking  a  horse  for  the  saddle  or  harness,  when 
young,  gentle  means  are  better  than  the  common  method  of 
forcibly  breaking  them.  After  he  is  broke  to  the  halter,  he 
should  be  tamed  by  leading  him  by  the  bridle  with  a  saddle  on 
his  back,  then  by  putting  weights  on  the  saddle,  adding  to 
them  till  he  carries  the  full  weight  of  a  man.  By  making  use 
of  very  forcible  means,  and  that  too  without  effectually  subdu* 
ing  his  spirit,  his  temper  is  sometimes  forever  after  spoiled. 

The  usefulness  and  even  the  value  of  a  horse  often  depends 
6n  proper  breaking  and  careful  usage  when  young. 

A  horse  should  never  be  exercised  so  severely,  as  to  make 
him  sweat  profusely  ;  but  if  he  does,  he  should  be  covered,  if 
the  weather  is  cold,  until  his  skin  and  hair  be  dried;  and  in 
the  mean  time  thoroughly  rubbed  down.  He  should  at  all 
times  be  kept  clean  and  well  curried. 

It  is  said  to  be  profitable  to  give  somethinD-  to  a  horse  when 
feeding  on  dry  hay,  to  supply  the  want  of  saliva,    which,  te 

*  See  essay  on  teamsi 

M  9 


133  AGRICCLTFRAL   ESSAYS. 

thereby  absorbed.  Snow  set  before  a  horse  for  this  purpose,  id- 
recommended  ;  or  some  may  be  thrown  into  the  manger.  The 
experiment  is  worth  trying. 

DISEASES.  Heaves.— The  symptoms  of  this  disorder 
are  Well  known.  In  early  stages  of  the  disease,  the  following 
medicine  has  proved  efficacious  in  the  cure  of  several  cases  of 
obstinate  heaves :  Take  one  pound  and  a  half  of  good  ginger 
for  a  horse,  give  two  table  spoonfulls  a  day,  one  in  the  morn- 
ing and  the  other  in  the  evening,  mixt  with  wheat  bran. 

Film  over  the  eyes. — Take  a  little  clean  hogVlard  on 
one  end  of  your  finger,  rub  it  well  in  the  quadrupid's  eye,  once 
a  day,  for  three  or  four  days  in  succession,  and  it  is  said  the 
film  will  be  removed  effectually. 

Colic  or  gripes. — When  occasioned  by  wind  the  horse 
is  often  lying  down  and  suddenly  rising  again  with  a  spring, 
and  strikes  his  belly  with  his  hind  feet;  stamps  with  his  fore 
feet ;  refuses  food ;  stretches  out  his  limbs ;  his  ears  and 
feet  are  alternately  hot  and  cold ;  falls  into  profuse  sweats  and 
then  into  cold  damps :  and  often  tries  to  stool,  but  cannot. 
This  proceeds  from  a  stoppage  of  urine,  by  a  load  of  dung  pres- 
sing on  the  neck  of  the  bladder  which  should  be  removed  with 
a  hand  dipt  in  oil.  The  following  ball  should  be  given  as 
soon  as  possible :  Take  Venice  turpentine,  and  Juniper  berries 
pounded,  of  each  one  ounce,  nitre,  one  ounce,  oil  of  juniper 
one  drachm,  salt  of  tarter  two  drachms  :  make  into  a  ball 
with  honey  or  molasses:  wash  down  with  a  horn  or  two  of 
warm  gruel.  The  following  drink  has  proved  an  effectual 
eure.  Take  one  ounce  of  juniper  berries  powdered,  one 
•unce  of  anniseeds,  half  a  gill  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  and 
half  a  gill  of  liquid  landanum  :  mixed  in  three  half  pints  of  warm 
ale  and  sweetened  with  molasses  :  at  the  same  time  give  warm  . 
opening  clysters.  If  this  does  not  give  relief  in  an  hour  or 
two,  walk  or  trot  the  horse  about  gently,  but  not  to  jade  him. 
Another  species  of  colic,  is  termed  billions  or  inflamatory,  and 
is  attended  with  most  of  the  preceding  symptoms.  But  a  high 
Ifever  soon  comes  on  with  a  panting  and  dryness  of  the  mouth ; 
the  horse  continues  to  throw  out  a  Tittle  hot  dung,  which  ap- 
pears blackish,  or  of  a  red  color,  and  is  of  a  foetid  smell,  this 
denotes  an  approaching  mortification.  In  this  case  the  horse 
should  be  immediately  bled,  as  much  as  three  or  four  quarts : 
and  it  should  be  repeated  m  three  or  four  hours,  if  the  symp- 
toms do  not  abate ;  emolient  cluster  should  be  given,  with 
two  ounces  of  nitre  dissolved  in  it,  two  or  three  times  a  day. 
The  following  cooling  drink  should  be  given  every  two  or 
tfcree  boure,  Ull  aeverS  gtooLi  are  produced  ;  afterwards  to  be 


HORSES.  XjO 

only  given  night  and  morning-  r  Take  of  senna,  three  ounces, 
salt  of  tartar  half  an  ounce,  infuse  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water  : 
in  an  hour  or  two  add  four  ounces  of  glauber  salts,  with  two 
ounces  of  honey.  If  the  symptoms  do  not  abate,  the  only  thing 
to  be  depended  on  is  a  strong  decoction  of  jusuitsbark,  given  to 
the  quantity  of  a  pint  every  Ihree  hours,  with  halfa  pint  of  port 
wine. —  Carver. 

BoT  WORMS.— This  insect  often  proves  very  fatal  to  horses, 
and  is  produced  by  an  insect  somewhat  resembling  a  bee  in  its 
head  and  neck,  which  in  the  summer  months  is  almost  ccn- 
stantly  flymg  about  horses,  and  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks 
will  fill  their  hair,  particularly  about  the  breast  and  legs,  with 
a  great  number  of  its  nits.  It  is  an  easy  matter  to  scrape  the 
nits  off  from  the  horse,  about  once  a  week,  in  the  months  of 
September  and  October  ;  and  a  horse  that  is  so  served,  it  i« 
believed,  will  never  be  troubled  with  the  bots.  If  the  lips  oi 
tongue  of  the  horse,  covered  with  warm  silva,  come  in  contact 
with  the  nit,  the  hot  immediately  leaves  the  nit  and  adheres  to 
the  tongue,  and  is  swallowed  with  the  food  of  the  horse.  It  s 
often  difficult,  sometimes  impossible,  to  dislodge  the  bots  from 
the  bowels  of  the  horse,  or  to  compel  them  to  loose  their  hold 
from  the  maw\  It  is  therefore  important  to  take  much 
pains  to  prevent  their  being  taken  into  the  stomach,  by  the 
means  above  prescribed.  Whenever  a  horse  itches  in  any 
part,  he  applies  his  teeth  for  the  purpose  of  scratching;  in  do- 
ing this  he  loosens  some  of  the  nits,  and  they  are  received  into 
his  mouth,  from  whence  tliey  pass  with  his  food  into  the  stom- 
ach, and  from  these  the  bot  is  produced.  To  kill  bots  in  a 
horse,  pour  a  quart  of  rum  down  his  throat:  this  will  make 
them  loose  their  hold  of  the  nmw,  and  they  will  be  carried  off 
with  its  contents.  Repeat  th*^  dose  as  often  as  may  be  found 
necessary.  A  few  doses  of  linseed  oil,  about  a  pint  each  time, 
will  also  quickly  effect  a  cure.  When  these  cannot  be  pro- 
cured in  season,  a  table  spoonful  of  the  powder  of  the  blue 
flagg  root,  in  a  fresh  state,  given  to  a  horse,  will  frequently  ex- 
pel a  great  number  of  the  bots  from  his  bowels.  If  the  nits  of 
a  horse  are  scraped  off  about  once  a  week,  in  the  months  of 
September  and  October,  it  is  said  a  horse  Vv'ill  never  be  troub- 
led with  the  bots.  Every  attention  necessary  to  dislodge  the 
nits,  from  the  horse,  and  thereby  prevent  the  disease,  should  bel 
attended  to :  for  it  is  often  very  difficult  and  sometimes  impossibc 
with  any  medicine  to  dislodge  the  bot  from  the  maw  of  the  bowel  « 

False  quarter,  is- a  cleft  or  chink  in  the  hoof  of  a  horse 
^romto  top  bottom.  The  inner  side  of  the  hoof  being  the  thin- 
aest  is  most  liable  to  it.      When  it  becomes  troublesome  to  a 


Mo  iGRICeLTURiL   ESSAYS. 

horse,  Gibson  directs,  that  the  cleft  be  paired  out  to  tlie  quicfe, 
then  annoint  the  hoof  with  a  mixture  of  tar,  honey  and 
suet  melted  together,  and  lay  a  pledget  dipt  in  the  game  a- 
long  the  cleft.  Then  bind  up  the  hoof  as  tight  as  possible,  by 
winding  rope  yarn  closely  around  it  from  top  to  bottom.  The 
shoe  should  previously  be  taken  off.  The  wound  should  be 
Opened  and  drest  every  third  or  fourth  day,  and  to  prevent  any 
inconvenience  from  this,  let  the  cleft  be  held  together  at  the 
bottom  by  a  thin  plate  fastened  on  for  that  purpose.  It  is  how- 
ever very  difficult,  and  often  impossible,  says  the  same  author^ 
to  effect  a  cure  in  an  old  and  a  diseased  horse. 

Farcy  is  a  disease  in'  horses  similar  to  the  scurvy  among 
men,  and  is  caused  by  confining  a  horse  too  long  to  dry  meal. 
Tt  is  known  by  small  tumors  appearing  on  the  head  and 
other  parts  of  the  body.  Turning  a  horse  to  fresh  pastures 
will  effect  a  cure  in  the  first  stages  of  the  disorder;  but  when 
it  has  become  more  inveterate  by  long  standing,  Gibson  directs 
that  the  horse  be  bled,  moderately  purged,  and  then  that  doses" 
of  antimony  be  given  him. 

Foundering  of  horses. — It  is  usuaHy  said  that  a  horse  is- 
foundered,  when  his  feet  and  legs  have  become  stiffened  and 
sore,  by  eating  too  large  a  quantity  of  hard  grain  at  once.  The" 
best  remedy  for  this  has  been  found  to  be  exercise  by  riding-  ;.• 
and  in  addition  to  this,  also,  put  into  a  rag  human  ordure  and 
wind  round  the  bits,  and  let  him  chevv  upon  it  while  riding  him>- 
and  in  due  season  repeat  the  dose,  if  necessary. 

There  is  a  disorder  of  the  feet  of  horses,  in  which  they  ard 
also  said  to  be  foundered.  This  is  a  p  ainful  disease  ;  the  horse,^ 
affected  with  it,  draws  hhnself  up  in  a  heap,  and  is  loth  to 
move.  It  is  occasioned  by  standing  in  cold  water,  after  being 
heated  v/ith  exercise,  or  sometimes  even  by  standing  still  in- 
the  stable  several  days  after  exercise  ;  sometimes  by  bad  shoe- 
ing, or  by  bruises  on  the  legs. 

In  this  case,  if  a  remedy  be  not  immediately  applied,  a  gath- 
ering will  take  place  in  the  feet,  and  the  hoofs  will  be  cast  off  j^ 
by  which  the  use  of  the  horse  will  be  lost  for  some  time.  The 
remedy  is,  to  slit  the  hoofs  open  from  top  to  bottorh,  so  that 
blood  will  follow  pretty  freely^  In  order  to  cure  these  wounds 
again,  apply  tar,  turpentine,  and  honey,  melted  together,  with 
a  fourth  part  of  the  spirits  of  wine  4  let  pledgets,  made  of  tow^ 
be  soaked  in  this,  and  then  laid  in  the  chinks  of  the  foot  bound 
up.  These  are  not  to  be  opened  for  two  days  ;  and  then  let 
fresh  applications  be  made  every  day  till  the  channels  in  the 
hoofs  bje  grown  up. 

If  the  Bole  of  the  foot  is  also  drawn,  it  must  fee  served  in  » 


HORSES.  I4t 

similar  manner.  A  piece  of  leather  should  be  laid  over  the 
sole,  and  the  whole  foot  so  bound  up  with  strong^  bandages  that 
the  applications  may  not  be  displaced. 

Gigs  ;  little  tumors,  or  bladders,  filled  with  matter,  fonnd 
in  the  mouths  of  horses.  The  cure  is  effected  by  slitting  them 
open,  and  then  washing  them  with  salt  and  vinegar. 

Glanders  ;  usually  called  the  horse  distemper.  It  is  al- 
ways accompanied  with  a  discharge  of  matter  from  the  nos- 
trils, and  a  swelling  of  the  glands  under  the  throat  and  tongue. 
When  the  bones  in  that  part  become  carious,  it  is  generally 
incurable  ;  and  this  may  be  know  n  by  the  bad  smell  which  is 
produced  in  such  cases.  Gibson,  in  his  treatise  on  farriery, 
for  this  disease,  while  in  its  first  stages,  recommends,  to  make 
use  of  purges,  diaphoretic ks,  and  rowelling  in  the  hinder  parta. 
Rowelling  in  the  breast  is  thought  will  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

A  disease  of  ^he  nature  of  a  cholic,  wuth  hoises,  and  with 
which  also  horned  cattle  are  sometim'es  troubled.  It  general^ 
ly  proceeds  from  wind  pent  up  in  the  stomach,  or  bowels,  and 
is  caused  by  a.  high  statG  of  costivsnesS.  :Iiorse>j  have  bee?? 
known  to  have  the  dung  within  them  so  hard  and  dry,  that  it 
could  not  be  voided  without  assistance  by  clearing  it  out  by 
the  hand.  After  it  has  in  this  way  been  cleared  out,  clysters 
are  to  be  administered,  which  will  open  the  passage,  and  of 
course  give  vent  to  the  wind. 

Hyde-boUxNd.  This  often  happens  when  horses  are  poorly 
kept,  and  badly  used.  In  this  the  animal  grows  poor,  his  skin 
sticks  to  his  ribs,  and  small  boils  break  out  on  his  back.  A 
method  of  treatment  opposite  to  that  which  the  horse  has  re- 
ceived, will  generally  restore  him  ;  that  is,  keep  and  feed  him 
well,  work  him  moderately,  and  Icoson  his  skin  by  oiling  it, 
and  using  the  curry-comb  frequently,  but  not  too  harshly. 

Lampas.  These  are  vulgarly  called  lampers.  It  is  an  ex- 
crescence in  the  roof  of  tlie  mouth  of  a  horse,  which  hinders 
him  from  feeding.  Youn^-  horses  arc  most  liable  :c  it.  It  is 
cured  by  applying  a  hot  iron,  ma-e  for  the  purpose,  to  the 
swollen  parts.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  penetrate  so  deep 
as  to  scale  the  bone  that  hes  unc'er  the  upper  bans  of  th^ 
mouth,  for  this  would  be  v-ny  injurious. 

Poll-evil.  This  is  an  impost  tumor  on  the  poll  of  a  horse. 
At  first  it  requires  no  other  method  of  cure  than  is  proper  for 
boils  and  inflamed  tumors  ;  but  it  sometimes,  from  neglect  or 
mismanagement,  becomes  a  sinuous  ulcer.  In  that  case,  the 
matter  is  apt  to  lodge  in  a  small  sinus  v/hich  is  under  the  poll 
bone,  unless  care  be  taken  t«  keep  the  part  firm  with  a  band. 


142  IgrJccltural  essays. 

age ;  that  if  the  tumor  has  a  large  cavity,  it  should  be  laid 
•pen,  and  if  it  acquires  an  ulcerous  disposition,  it  should  be 
treated  as  such. 

Tt-MORS.  When  these  appear  on  the  poll,  withers,  under 
the  jaws,  or  in  the  groins  of  horses,  they  should  be  forwarded 
by  ripening  poultices  of  oat-meal,  boiled  soft  in  milk,  mixed 
with  oil  and  lard,  and  applied  twice  a  day,  till  the  matter  is 
perceived  to  grow  soft,  and  moves  under  the  fingers ;  and  then 
it  should  be  let  out  by  a  sufficiently  large  opening  with  the 
lancet.  Let  the  opening  be  full  as  far  as  the  matter  extends. 
After  cleansing  the  sore,  apply  pledgets  of  tow,  spread  with  a 
salve,  or  ointment,  made  of  Venice  turpentine,  beeswax,  oil 
of  olives,  and  yellow  rosin;  and  let  these  be  administered 
twice  a  day,  if  the  discharge  is  great,  till  a  proper  digestion 
takes  place,  when  it  should  be  changed  for  pledgets  spread 
with  the  red  precipitate  ointment,  applied  in  the  same  manner.. 
Should  the  sore  not  digest,  but  run  a  thin  witter,  foment  it  aa 
often  as  you  dress  it,  and  apply  over  this  dressing,  a  strong 
beer  poultice,  and  continue  this  rill  the  matter  grows  thick, 
and  the  sore  liorid.  Should  any  proud  flesh  get  into  the  sore^ 
wash  it  as  often  as  you  dress  it,  with  a  solution  of  blue  vitriol 
in  water,  or  sprinkle  it  with  burnt  allum  and  precipitate.  If 
these  should  not  prove  sufficiently  powerful,  apply  caustics,  by 
washing  it  with  a  solution  of  half  an  ounce  of  corrosive  subli- 
mate in  a  pint  of  water.  When  the  sore  can  be  tightly  com- 
pressed with  a  bandage,  however,  these  funguses  may  be 
generally  prevented. 

Tumors  caused  by  bruises,  should,  if  nee ssary,  be  bathed 
with  hot  vinegar  and  verjuice;  and  then  a  flannel  cloth  should 
be  wrapped  round  the  part,  if  it  can  be  done.  If  tliis  does  not 
abate  the  swelling,  especially  if  it  be  in  either  of  the  legs, 
poultice  it  twice  a  day,  after  bathing  it  with  wine  lees,  or  beer 
groands  and  oat  meal,  or  with  vinegar,  oil,  and  oat  meal,  till 
the  swelling  abates  ;  when,  in  order  to  disperse  it  entirely,  let 
it  be  bathed  twice  a  day  with  a  mixture  of  two  oimces  oi' crude 
sal  amtnoniac  in  a  quart  of  chamber-lie,  having  rags  dipped  in 
it  and  laid  on. 

When  the  extravasated  blood  is  not  dispersed  by  thes^ 
means,  let  an  opening  be  made  in  the  skin,  and  let  the  blood 
out.  and  then  heal  the  wound. 

Scratches,  is  a  disease  in  the  legs  of  horses,  occasioned  by 
bad  blood  and  too  Irird  labor.     The  skin  of  the  legs  becomes 
cracked  open,  emitting  a  reddish  colored  humor.     To  cure  the  ;; 
disease,  wash  the  cracks  with  soap  suds,  and  then  rub  theaa 


HORSES.  1^ 

twice  a  day  with  aa  ointment  of  hog's  lard,  mixed  with  a  little 
sublimate  mercury. 

Spavin  ;  a  swelling  about  the  joints  of  horses,  causing  lame- 
ness. There  are  two  kinds  of  this  disorder,  a  blood'^spavin 
and  a  bag  spavin.  The  former  is  a  swelling  of  the  vein  that 
runs  along  the  inside  of  the  middle  joint  of  the  hind  legs,  w'hich 
is  frequently  attended  with  a  lameness  of  the  joint.  To  cure 
it,  says  Mr.  Gibson,  apply  restringents  and  a  bandag-e  tightly 
drawn  round  the  joint ;  for  then,  if  early  applied,  it  will  gener- 
ally effect  a  cure  :  but  if  by  these  means  the  vein  is  not  reduc- 
ed to  its  usual  dimensions,  the  skin  should  be  opened,  and  the 
vein  tied  with  a  crooked  needle  and  a  wax  thread,  passed  un- 
derneath, ahove.  and  below  the  swelling,  and  the  turged  part 
will  then  digest  away  with  the  ligatures.  Let  the  wound  be 
daily  dressed  with  a  mjxture  of  turpentine,  honey,  and  spirit 
of  wine. 

The  bag  spavin  is  merely  a  cyst,  or  bag,  filled  with  the  gel- 
atinous matter  of  the  joint,  erupted  from  its  proper  place.  To 
cure  this,  cut  into  the  bag  and  let  the  matter  discharge  ;  then 
dress  the  sore  with  lint  dipped  in  oil  of  turpentine,  putting  into 
it  once  in  three  or  four  days,  apmvder  made  of  calcined  v°itriol, 
allum,  and  bole.  By  this  method  of  dressing,  the  bao-  will 
come  away,  and  a  cure  will  be  effected  without  any  visible 
scar.  Should  this  fail  of  a  cure,  the  hot  iron  is  directed  to  be 
applied  ;  and  in  that  case  if  the  joint  becomes  inflamed,  apply 
a  poultice  over  the  dressings,  till  the  swelling  is  reduced. 

Staggers.  When  this  disease  is  occasioned  byhardusao-e 
Gibson  directs  to  take  a  pint  of  blood  from  his  neck,  and  then 
a  quart  from  some  vein  in  his  hinder  parts,  and  that  he  be  kept 
on  moderate  cleansing  diet. 

When  the  disease  arises  from  an  apoplectic  disorder,  he 
must  be  treated  as  before,  and  exercising  every  day  with 
chewing  assafoBteda,  savin,  and  other  noisome  medicine,  which 
will  keep  hini  in  constant  action,  and  forward  the  circulation 
of  the  blood  in  the  small  vessels  ;  afterwards  recourse  must  be 
had  to  clysters,  strong  purgatives,  rubbing,  and  exercise. 

When  it  arises  from  the  swimming  of  the  head,  the  animal 
reels,  turns  around  and  falls.  For  this  take  an  ounce  of  senna, 
boiled  in  ft9e  pints  of  water  with  four  ounces  of  common  trea- 
cle, and  the  usual  quantity  of  oils  or  lard,  to  throw  on  as  a  clys- 
ter, and  repeat  this  for  two  or  three  days  ;  after  this  he  niay 
"have  a  drink  of  beer,  in  wiiich  the  roots  of  peony,  angelica,  rue 
rosemary,  and  flowers  of  lavender,  have  been  steeped.  If  the 
disease  continues  obstina^.e,  balls  of  cinnibar  and  a^safceteda, 
With  bog  berries,  will  be  proper :  here,  as  in  apopleQtive  cases, 


144  AGRlCtlLTURAL    ESSAYS. 

Gibson  condemns  the  practice  of  putting  ginger  and  other  stim- 
ulating things  into  the  ear,  as  dangerous,  though  it  may  some- 
times prove  beneficial.  v 

Strain,  or  Sprain.  Horses  are  liable  to  strains,  particular- 
ly in  the  shoulders.  Anointing  them  with  spirits  of  turpentine 
in  the  part  injured,  will  help  them  for  a  while,  but  will  not  af- 
ford them  a  permanent  relief.  Washing  the  shoulder,  when 
that  partis  affected,  with  brine,  as  warm  as  it  can  wel]  be  borne, 
will  effect  a  cure  in  a  few  days.  It  should  be  done  twice  a 
day.  And  letting  the  animal  rest  from  labor,  will  generally 
perform  a  cure  in  a  few  weeks,  at  fartherest.  If  these  will  not 
answer,  let  warm  poultices  be  applied,  of  bran  boiled  in  vine- 
gar, with  a  sufficiency  of  hog's  lard  to  prevent  its  growing 
hard ;  let  this  be  repeated,  if  necessary,  until  the  cure  is  com- 
pleted ;  and  then  mind  to  keep  that  part  covered  a  while  so  that 
it  shall  not  be  affected  by  colds. 

Wheezing.  A  disease  of  horses  commonly  called  broken 
wind.  Caused  by  surfeits,  violent  exercise  when  the  helly  is 
ful],  by  being  rode  into  cold  water  when  very  warm,  or  by  ob- 
stinate colds  not  cured.  For  the  curft,  it  is  advised  that  the 
horse  should  have  good  nourishment,  much  grain,  and  little 
iiay :  and  that  tJxe  v/ater  given  him  to  drink  daily,  have  a  solu- 
tion of  half  an  ounce  of  saltpetre,  and  two  drachms  of  sal  am- 
moniac. It  is  said  that  the  hay  made  of  white  weed,  or  what 
is  called  bull's  eye,  rnay-weed,  &c.  will  cure  this  disorder. 

WiNDGALL  These  are  flatulent  swellings  on  the  bodies  of 
horses,  but  most  commonly  they  are  seated  on  both  sides  of 
the  back  sinew,  above  the  fet-locks.  Sometimes  they  are  in 
the  joints  and  tendons.  They  are  generally  filled  with  air  and 
a  watry  matter.  When  they  appear  in  the  interstices  of  the 
large  muscles,  which  then  appear  blown  up  like  bladders,  they 
aie  principally  filled  with  air,  and  may  be  safely  opsned^and 
treated  as  a  common  wound.  When  they  first  appear,  tliey  are 
usually  cured  with  restringents  and  bandages,  drawn  very  tiglit- 
ly  round  them  ;  for  which  purpose,  let  the  swelling  be  bathed 
twice  a  day  with  vinoa ar  or  verjuice,  or  fomented  with  a  decoc- 
tion of  oak  bark,  from  granite  and  allum  boiled  in  verjuice,  and 
Jet  the  bandage  which  binds  the  wind-gall  be  soaked  in  the 
same.  If  this  should  fail,  the  swelling  may  be  drawn  off  by 
blistering,  and  applying  the  blistering  ointment,  repeating  it  || 
at  times,  till  the  humor  is  all  drawn  off.  Some,  however,  cut  ij 
open  these  swellings,  wherever  they  may  be  situated,  and 
treat  them  as  a  wound.  But  perhaps,  when  they  are  in  tho- 
joints,  the  blistering  is  the  safer  remedy,  as  the  joints  may  be- 
stiffened  by  imprudent  management., 


HORSES.  145 

Yelloavs.  In  cattle,  this  disease  is  called  the  overflowings 
of  the  gall ;  in  horses  it  is  called  the  yellows,  or  jaundice. 
This  disease  is  known  by  the  yellowness  of  the  eyes,  and  of 
the  inside  of  the  mouth;  the  animal  becomes  dull  and  refuses 
to  eat.  His  urine  is  voided  with  difficulty,  and  looks  red  like 
blood,  after  it  has  lain  sometime  :  the  off  side  of  the  belly  is 
sometimes  hard  and  distended.  First  bleed  plentifully,  and 
(five  the  lasative  clyster,  as  horses  having  this  disorder  arg 
usually  costive,  and  the  next  day  give  him  a  purge  of  an  ounce 
and  a  half  of  cream  of  tartar,  half  an  ounce  of  castile  soap,  and 
ten  drachms  of  saccobine  aloes.  Repeat  this  two  or  three 
times,  giving  intermediately  the  following  balls  and  drink  f 
Take  ethiop  mineral,  half  an  ounce;  mellepedes,  the  same 
quantity  ;  castile  soap,  one  ounce  ;  make  this  into  a  ball,  and 
give  one  every  day,  and  wash  it  down  with  a  pint  of  this  de- 
coction :  Take  madder  root  and  tumerick,  of  each  four  ounces ; 
burdock  root  sliced,  half  a  pound  ;  monks  rhubarb,  four  oun- 
ces ;  boil  the  whole  in  a  gallon  of  forge  water  down  to  three 
quarts ;  strain  it  off  and  sweeten  it  with  honey.  Balls  of  cas- 
tile soap  and  tumerick  may  also  be  given  for  this  purpose, 
three  or  four  ounces  a  day,  and  will  in  most  cases  succeed  in 
effecting  a  cure.  By  these  means  the  disorder  generally 
abates  in  a  week,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  alteration  of  the 
horse's  eyes  and  mouth  ;  but  the  medicine  must  be  continued 
till  the  yellowness  is  removed.  Should  the  disorder  prove  ob- 
stinate, more  potent  medicine  must  be  tried;  viz.  mercurial 
physic,  repeated  two  or  three  times  at  proper  intervals,  and 
then  the  following  balls  :  Take  salt  of  tartar,  two  ounces ;  cen- 
nabar  of  antimony,  four  ounces  ;  live  mellepedes,  and  filings  of 
steel,  of  each  four  ounces  ;  castile  soap,  half  a  pound  ;  make 
them  into  balls  of  the  size  of  hen's  eggs,  and  give  one  of  thena 
night  and  morning,  with  a  pint  of  the  above  drink.  On  the  re- 
covery of  the  horse,  give  him  two  or  three  mild  purges  ;  and  if 
he  be  full  and  fat,  put  in  a  rowel. 

There  are  some  other  diseases  incident  to  horses,  which 
must  not  be  noticed  in  this  short  treatise ;  and  perhaps  it  is  not 
necessary,  when  it  is  considered  that  good  keeping  and  proper 
management  is  almost  a  general  antidote  against  all  diseases. 


N 


iiff  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAT^S. 


Neat  Cattle. 


The  neat  cattle  in  the  United  States,  are  evidently  mixtures 
of  various  breeds,  from  different  stocks,  which  have,  in  their 
origin,  distinct  and  specific  characters.  This  mixture  has  not 
probably  diminished  the  aggregate  value  of  the  stock. 

The  distinct  breeds  as  they  are  known  in  Great-Britain,  will 
not  generally  be  distinguished  in  our  courtry  by  distinct  and 
peculiar  characteristics,  until  they  are  made  so  by  the  obser- 
vations and  practice  of  our  farmers,  in  keeping  them  which 
have  peculiar  properties  from  intermixing  with  others  posses- 
sing different  properties.  . 

The  cattle,  in  Great  Britain,  which  are  called  by  particular 
names,  as  the  Devonshire,  the  Lancashire,  &c.  originated  from 
a  stock  possessing  some  peculiar  valuable  properties,  for  which 
they  were  originally  distinguished.  But  it  is  by  no  means  cer- 
tain that  the  cattle,  which  may  be  caUed  by  tliose  particular 
names  in  this  country,  possess  their  original  valuable  proper- 
ties. These  names  are  indeed  convenient  to  distinguish  a  par^ 
ticular  breed.  But  they  are  made  use  of  doubtless,  in  market, 
very  often,  for  the  purposes  of  speculation  and  fraud.  Names 
furnish  no  more  evidence  of  peculiar  valuable  qualifications  a- 
mong  cattle,  than  they  do  among  political  sects. 

Our  citizens,  therefore,  who  purchase  cattle  for  the  purpose 
of  improving  the  breed,  should  be  careful  to  see  that  they  do 
possess  the  qualities  for  which  they  are  characterized,  rather 
than  rely  on  names  as  evidence    of  those  properties. 

Those  who  go  into  Great-Britain  themselves,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  purchases  to  improve  our  breed,  are  perhaps  not  so 
likely  to  be  imposed  upon  by  names,  as  our  citizens  are,  who 
purchase  here,  without  any  historical  knowledge  of  the  origin 
of  those  cattle  which  are  imported.  ,   .     , 

But  if  there  is  no  fraud  practiced  in  the  sale  of  imported  cat- 
tle, still  it  is  believed  our  breed  of  cattle  may  be  sufficiently  im. 
proved  for  every  valuable  purpose,  at  much  less  expense  than 
by  importing  them.  , 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  among  our  mongrel  breed 
of  cattle,  all  the  properties  may  be  found,  which  distinguish  the 
various  breeds  in  Great-Britain  ;  and  as  breeds  of  cattle  areu- 
aually  much  improved  by  crossing  or  mixing  different  kinds  to^ 
eether  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that  these  properties  are 
diminished  in  value,  or  that,  on  the  whole,  the  stock  is  degener- 

Put  very  fe^  of  our  citizens  have  capit^il  sufficient ;  and  very; 


Neat  cattle. 


147 


few  of  those  who  have,  are  disposed  to  attempt  to  improve  our 
breed  by  importing  stock  from  any  other  country. 

Those  few  which  are  imported,  do  not  come  to  the  possession, 
or  even  to  the  knowledge  of  but  few  of  our  citizens,  until  their 
blood  becomes  variously  intermixed. 

A  particular  account 'of  the  various  breeds  of  cattle,  which 
are  known  in  Great-Britain  by  distinct  names,  can  be  of  no  oth- 
er use  to  our  farmers  generally,  than  to  convince  them,  in  the 
first  place,  that  our  stock  of  neat  cattle  possess,  in  the  aggre- 
gate of  their  various  properties,  all  those  which  distinguish  the 
stock  of  the  English  farmers,  and  to  aid  them  in  the  object  of  se- 
lecting those  cows  for  breeders,  which  possess  those  peculiar 
properties  which  are  best  adapted  for  those  uses  for  which  they 
may  be  wanted. 

In  the  selection  and  improvement  of  our  breeds  of  cattle,  re- 
gard is  to  be  had  to  the  uses  for  which  they  are  mtended.  If 
the  best  milch  cows  are  desired,  we  should  select  from  the 
breeds  which  are  known  to  be  the  best  for  that  use,  and  so  with 
respect  toothers.  I  have  made  these  remarks  to  explain  ray 
views,  in  describing  the  various  breeds  of  cattle,  known  in 
Great-Hritain  at  this  time,  a  concise  account  of  which  is  here 
given. 

1.  The  original  or  wild  race  of  that  country,  color  invariably 
white ;  horns  tipped  with  black  ;  end  of  the  ears,  inside  ami 
outside  reddish  ;  black  muggels  ;  flesh  fine,  and  weU  tasted. 

2.  The  Devonshire  bree^  said  to  be  in  part  descended  from 
the  above  race ;  color,  light  red,  with  a  light  dim  ring  round 
the  eye ;  thin  face ;  thin  skin ;  hips  wide  ;  tail  quite  low  ;  rath- 
er small  horned  ;  horns  turning  upward  ;  the  cows  yield  good 
rich  milk  ;  oxen  good  for  draught,  and  fatten  early. 

3.  Dutch,  or  short  horned  breed  ;  hide  thin  ;  horns  short ; 
tails  sethigh  ;  color  red  and  white, nearly  mixed  ;  tender  con- 
stitutions ;  fatten  kindly,  and  yield  large  quantities  both  of 
milk  and  tallow. 

4.  Lancashire  breed,  with  straiter  horns  than  those  of  any 
other,  spreading  widely,  and  extending  forward  ;  large,  and 
square  built;  fore  quarters  deep;  milk  not  abundant,  but  rich; 
the  animal  hardy.  From  an  intermixture  of  this  breed  with 
others,  Mr.  Bakewell  obtained  the  Dishley  breed,  which  are 
remarkable  for  fattening  easily,  and  upon  the  most  valuable 
parts ;  though  they  yield  but  little  milk  or  tallow,  when  com- 
pared with  some  others. 

5.  Highland  breed,  or  Sheyloes,  with  horns  turned  upwards  : 
colors  various,  chiefly  black,  though  sometimes  brindled,  or 
dun;  hair  long  and  close;  bodies  well  shaped,  best  suited  to 


*48  AORICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

Qold,  mountainous  countries  ;  good  for  milk,  and  kind  to  fatten. 

6.  Polled  breed,  shaped  like  the  Devonshire  breed,  though 
lather  shorter ;  hides  moderately  thick  ;  hardy,  and  fatten 
kindly  on  the  best  parts  ;  flesh  good,  and  well  mixed  with  fat ; 
oxen  good  for  draft.  A  variety  of  this  breed  of  cows  called 
the  Suffolk  duns,  are  excellent  for  the  dairy.  These  are  small, 
)ean,  big  bellied,  and  of  a  dun  color. 

7.  Alderney,  or  French  breed  ;  smaJl;  light  red;  smooth,  neat 
korns  ;  tender  constitutions ;  rich  milkers  ;  flesh  good. 

8.  Welch  breed,  chiefly  black  ;  small,  with  horns  thick,  and 
turning  upwards ;  well  shaped  ;  vigorous,  and  well  calculated 
for  labor. 

It  is  believed  that  our  cattle  mostly  resemble  those  of  the 
Devonshire,  but  in  comparing  our  cattle  with  the  English  breeds, 
it  appears,  as  has  been  observed,  that  ours  are  made  up  of  mix- 
tures of  different  breeds,  and  that  all  the  good  properties  of  the 
English  stock  of  neat  cattle,  are  to  be  found  among  ours  ;  but 
so  variously  distributed  that  no  specific  characters  can  be 
given  them. 

Some  few  individuals  in  the  United  States  have  made  efforts 
to  improve  our  breed  of  cattle,  by  importing  bulls  and  cows 
from  some  known  specific  breeds  in  Great  Britain.  But  when 
we  consider  the  enormous  expense  which  those  importers  im- 
pede on  our  farmers,  we  have  no  great  reason  of  gratitude  to 
them  for  their  patriotism  in  so  doing.  It  is  very  obvious  that 
it  is  to  the  peculiar  mode  of  rearing  and  keeping  their  neat 
cattle,  that  we  are  to  attribute  their  superiority,  rather  than  to 
any  excellence  peculiar  to  their  origin. 

Were  the  same  money  which  is  paid  to  the  speculator  for 
his  imported  cattle,  expended  in  the  nurture,  and  better  keep- 
ing, and  managing  our  own  native  breed,  we  should  probably  by 
that  means,  make  it  equal  to  theirs,  with  a  great  saving  of  ex- 
pense, and  thereby  expose  the  absurdity  of  the  opinion  of  M. 
de  Buffon,  and  many  historians  and  philosophers  of  Europe, 
that  all  the  animals  in  America  are  inferior  in  every  thing 
which  constitutes  their  proper  perfection,  to  those  of  the  same 
species  in  Europe  ;  and  that  there  was  something  deficient 
and  degrading  in  the  American  climate,  with  regard  to  the 
productions  and  powers  of  animal  life. 

If  we  would  rival  the  English  farmers  in  raising  up  an  im- 
proved breed  of  cattle,  we  must  make  use  of  similar  means 
with  them. 

The  first  object  is  to  select  the  best  cows  we  have  among  us, 
from  which  we  must  raise  our  calves  ;  and  in  making  this  se- 
lection, a  du«  regard  is  to  be  had  to  the  uses  for  which  they 


i»EAT   CATTLEr  14t 

lire  intended.  If  the  best  mileh  eows  are  desired,  select  from 
the  best  breeds  of  those  which  are  known  to  h&  the  best  for 
that  uie  ;  those  which  yield  the  most  of  such  cream  as  makee 
the  best  butter,  in  any  one  year,  are  generally  to  be  preferred. 
The  size  of  cows  is  not  so  material ;  as  it  is  found  that  all  cat- 
tle eat  nearly  in  proportion  to  their  respective  sizes.  What 
would  be  necessary  to  feed  one  of  the  large  Lancashire  breed 
of  cows,  would  be  nearly  sufficient  for  two  of  the  Alderney 
fcreed,  before  mehti6ned  ;  while  the  milk  of  the  tw;o  latter 
would  probably  nearly  double  that  of  the  former.  There  is 
hardly  any  breed  of  neat  cattle  but  what  are  sufficiently  large 
formilchcows,  if  well  kept.  ^  ,      ^       w     r^      • 

A  perfect  cow,  says  the  compiler  of  the  Complete  trrazier, 
should  have  a  broad  smooth  forehead,  black  eyes,  large  clean 
horns,  thick  skin,  large  deep  body,  strong  muscular  thighs, 
large  white  or  yellow  udder,  with  long  elastic  teats,  together 
With  every  other  token  requisite  in  a  bull,  allowmg  for  the  dit- 
ference  of  sex.  It  is  said  milch  kine  are  not  good  for  breed- 
ing after  they  are  twelve.  ,,  _  ^^.  ,  r. 
The  signs  of  a  good  ox,  says  Mr.  Dean,  are  thick,  sett, 
smooth  short  hair,  short  thick  head,  gloss  smooth  horns,  large 
shaggy  ears,  wide  forehead,  full  black  eyes,  wide  nostrils, 
black  lips,  thick  fleshy  neck,  large  shoulders,  broad  yems, 
large  belly,  thick  rump  and  thighs,  straight  back,  long  tail  well 
covered  with  hair,  and  short  broad  hoofs.  The  best  colors  are 
brown,  dark  red,  and  brindled. 

When  a  cow  is  found  to  produce  calves  which  make  cowe 
or  oxen  of  the  above  description,  she  should  be  kept  for  a 
breeder,  and  her  calves,  provided  they  come  in  proper  season, 
ehould  be  raised  instead  of  being  committed  to  the  butcher,  as 

they  too  oflen  are.  ^     /*   .,         ,      •     .1 

Calves,  for  raising,  should  be  brought  forth  early  in  the 
apring ;  those  brought  late  will  not  so  well  endure  the  succeed- 
ing winter,  and,  if  heifers,  will  usually  go  to  the  thirdi'year  be- 
fore they  are  with  calf,  while  those  that  are  calved  earlier  will 
usually  "bring  forth  a  year  sooner. 

It  often  happens,  throug  want  of  attention,  that  the  best  cows 
for  breeding,  bring  their  calves  too  late  for  raising,  and  is  it  not 
too  generally  the  practice  among  farmers  to  be  governed  by 
no  other  rule  of  decision,  with  respect  to  the  calves  they  will 
raise,  except  of  their  being  brought  forth  in  proper  season  : 
while  they  perhaps  improvidently  let  their  best  cows  calve 
out  of  season,  and  for  that  reason  kill  them. 

Heifers  generally  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty  when  they 
are  eighteen  months ;  though  in  some  instances  they  h&VG. 


150*  AGtiiCVLrVtLAL   £SSAtS. 

brought  forth  calves  before  that  time.  The  better  they  are 
kept,  the  sooner  they  will  breed ;  if,  however,  they  bjeed  so 
early,  they  should  be  highly  kept ;  for  otherwise  they  will  be 
apt  to  be  stinted  in  their  subsequent  growth.  Mr.  Bakewell 
used  to  keep  his  Diskley  breed  of  heifers  from  the  bull  until 
the  age  of  three ;  Sir  Jolm  Sinclair  attributes  to  this  their  often 
missing  being  with  calf.  It  is  believed  to  be  best  to  follow 
nature's  law : — let  them  go  to  the  bull  as  soon  as  they  feel  the 
inclination. 

Breeds  of  cattle  are  much  hnproved  by  crossing,  or  mixing 
different  kinds  together. 

As  the  purest  American  breed  is  almost  universally  a  mix- 
ture we  may  consider  that  a  favorable  circumstance  to  the  rais- 
ing from  it  a  valuable  stock,  which  may  possess  all  the  superior 
characteristics  of  the  English  breed. 

But  in  doing  this,  much  sound  discretion  and  pi-actical  sci- 
ence is  to  be  exercised. 

In  Great  Britain,  much  pains  has  been  taken  to  select  breeds 
which  should  unite  the  two  qualities  of  being  the  best  for  milk- 
ing, and  the  kindest  to  fatten ;  but  hitherto  such  breed  is  not 
to  be  found.  It  has  been  observed,  however,  by  Sir  John  Sin- 
clair, that  by  great  attention,  a  breed  might  probably  be  raised, 
the  males  of  which  might  be  well  calculated  for  the  shambles, 
and  the  females  produce  abundance  of  milk,  and  yet  when 
they  reached  eight  or  nine  years,*  might  be  easily  fattened. 
He  further  adds,  that  some  of  the  English  and  Scottish  breeds 
have  nearly  reached  this  point  of  perfection. 

To  improve  the  breed,  it  is  also  of  importance  that  there 
should  be  no  fornication  between  animals  which  are  nearly  re- 
lated ;  no  consanguinity  between  the  bull  and  the  cow  which 
is  put  to  him.  This  seems  to  be  agreeable  to  the  laws  of  na- 
ture, and  among  men  is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  degener- 
acy of  the  race,  where  the  posterity  of  some  small  secluded 
districts  constantly  intermarry  with  relatives  ;  or  where  the 
pride  of  families  has  served  to  preclude  a  due  intermixture 
with  others. 

For  the  bull,  the  finest  looking  calf,  possessing  as  nearly  as 
can  be  judged,  the  foregoing  requisites  for  a  good  ox,  should 
be  selected,  and  from  the  finest  of  the  breed  which  he  is  intend- 
ed to  propagate  ;  and  he  should  not  be  suffered  to  go  to  the 
cow  until  he  has  attained  a  good  growth.  Suffering  young, 
or  dwarfish,  or  ill  looking  bulls  to  go  to  cows,  only  tends  to 
degenerate  the  breed  ;  and  in  the  two  former  cases,  the  cow, 
by  being  served  with  such,  frequently  misses  having  a  calf. 


NEAT    CATTLEi 


i3l 


The  bull  should  have  good  keeping,  so  that  he   may  be  ic 
prime  condition  when  he  is  put  to  cows. 

But  although  the  circumstance  of  raising  the  best  stock,  and 
such  as  are  brought  forth  in  proper  season,  is  essential  to  im- 
prove the  breed,  yet  it  is  believed  that  the  superiority  of  the 
English  breed  of  cattle,  is  owing  principally  to  the  ditferent 
keeping  which  they  give  them  Mr.  Featherstonhaugh,  a  dis- 
tinguished farmer,  in  the  state  of  New-York,  after  a  journey  of 
fifteen  hundred  miles  in  the  diftesent  states,  for  the  puipose 
of  viewing  the  imported  cattle,  and  to  examine  the  method  af- 
ter which  their  owners  keep  them,  as  well  as  the  condition  of 
our  own  native  cattle,  remarks,  that  in  order  to  keep  up  the 
great  qualities  of  the  im.ported  breeds,  we  must  remember 
that  in  their  native  country  it  is  considered  indfspensible  to  keep 
them  extremely  well,  anil  in  a  very  different  manner  from  the 
general  custom  prevailing  here  ;  which  is,  in  summer  to  leave 
cattle  to  kelp  themselves  to  what  they  can  find,  even  in  the 
most  severe  drought ;  and  in  v.inter,  to  give  them  a  moderate 
quantity  of  hay  and  straw*  That  in  England,  vrhere  they  are 
less  troubled  with  dry  weather  than  we  are,  they  give  them 
green  crops  and  roots  in  abundance,  and  that  if  all  this  provi- 
dent attention  be  necessary  in  that  n  oist  climate,  it  is  certain^ 
the  breed  will  degenerate  with  us  if  it  is  not  kept  in  high  con- 
dition. He  observed  that  he  was  convinced  that  negligence 
was  the  universal  cause  of  diseases,  and  that  they  ordinarily 
arise  from  too  high  feeding  or  too  low.  In  the  one  case,  the 
digestive  powers  are  embarrassed,  in  the  other  they  are  not 
sutRciently  exercised,  and  in  both  the  animal  suifers ;  that  an- 
imals, regularly  yet  plentifully  fed  and  v*-ell  housed  in  winter, 
are  generally  healthy. 

In  those  places  where  milk  may  be  considered  so  valuable  as 
to  make  it  an  object  to  substitute  other  food  for  the  raising  of 
calves,  the  following  experiment  of  Mr.  Crook,  mentioned  in 
letters  and  papers  of  the  Bath  and^  West  of  England  Society, 
are  worthy  of  consideration.  In  1787,  he  purchased  three' 
sacks  of  linseed,  of  the  value  of  about  nine  dollars,  which 
lasted  him  three  years  ;  one  quart  of  linseed  was  boiled  in  six 
quarts  of  water  for  ten  minutes,  to  a  jelly,  which  was  given  to 
the  calves  three  times  a  day  mixed  with  a  little  hay  tea.  Thus 
he  was  enabled  to  raise  in  1787,  seventeen  calves  ;  in  1788, 
twenty  three ;  and  in  1789,  fifteen,  without  any  milk  at  all.  He 
states  that  his  calves  throve  much  better  than  those  of  his 
neighbors,  which  were  fed  with  milk.  It  appears  from  this 
statement  that  less  than  eighteen  cents  worth  of  flax  seed, 
with  a  trifle  of  hay,  is  suflicient  for  one  calf.      Linseed  oil 


IJ3  ACzRlCULTURAL    ESs»*;TJ  = 

cakes,  wheii  pulverized  and  boiled,  make  an  equally  good  jellyV 
Mr.  Clift,  ofNew-York,  directs  that  after  the  calf  has  been  fed 
for  a  fortnight  with  sweet  milk,  give  it  skim  milk  mixed  with 
an  equal  or  larger  quantity  of  flaxseed  broth,  or  jelly,  and 
let  be  given  to  it  milk  warm.  Enough  jelly  may  be  boil- 
ed at  once  for  three  or  four  days,  but  if  the  weather  be  warm 
it  will  be  spoiled  by  souring.  With  this  drink,  he  says,  calves 
will  thrive  as  well  as  if  fed  on  sweet  milk. 

The  following  communication  obtained  from  the  agricultur- 
al society  of  Massachusetts,  the  prize  for  Mr.  Rudd.  He  di- 
rects to  take  the  calves  from  the  cows  when  three  days  old^ 
and  feed  them  with  gruel  composed  of  one  third  barley,  and 
two  thirds  oats,  each  ground  fine  and  the  mixture  sifted.  A 
quart  of  this  gruel  is  to  be  given  to  each  calf,  morning  and 
evening.  The  gruel  is  made  by  taking  one  quart  of  the  flour 
and  twelve  of  water,  and  boiling  them  together  for  half  ari' 
hour,  and  is  to  be  given  when  milk  warm.  In  about  ten  days 
after  commencing  the  feeding,  tie  up  and  suspend  a  hrfndle  of 
sweet  hay  in  the  middle  of  the  pen  where  the  calves  are  kepty 
which  they  will  eat  by  degrees.  A  little  of  the  flour  put  into  a 
trough  for  them  to  lick  is  also  of  service,  t  f'eed  them  till  twa 
months  old,  increasing  the  quantity  as  they  grow  larger.  Hal^ 
a  bushel  of  the  above  mixture  is  sufficient  for  one  Calf. 

The  pasture  into  which  calves  are  put,  should  be  dry  and 
sweet.  White  clover  is  thought  to  be  the  best.  Red  clover, 
6r  trefoil,  is  also  good.  Mr.  L.  Hommendice,  recommends 
that  tliere  should  be  no  water  in  the  pasture,  but  sufficient  of 
shade.  The  effect  of  this,  he  says,  is  that  the  ceJves  learn  to 
feed  at  night,  when  the  dew  is  ofl,  and  lie  by  in  the  day  time^ 
and  as  grass  whOe  wet  with  dew  is  more  nourishing,  they 
will  thrive  in  this  Way  much  better  than  when  they  hai?e  free 
access  to  water,  which  he  says  has  a  tendency  to  stunt  thea* 
and  make  them  pot  bellied.  But  it  is  thought  to  be  the  better 
way  to  give  them  a  little  nourishing  drink  at  certain  times 
when  the  dews  fail,  or  at  mid  ^ay  when  the  weather  is  very 
tvarm. 

It  is  not  sufficient  for  Calyes  to  ^^  kept  well  until  they  are  S 
year  old,  and  have  warm  shelter  in  the  winter.  But  it  is  toff 
common  for  farmers,  to  turn  their  yOung  growing  cattle  inta 
pastures  of  stunted  growth.  Or  iiito  woods  where  there  is  not 
sufficient  for  them  to  eat,  by  means  of  which  their  growth  is 
retarded  ;  and  what  is  worse,  they  hereby  often  learn  to  be- 
come habitually  unruly,  from  the  constant  temptation  they  are 
under  of  breaking  into  fields  where  there  is  plenty. 

It  is  believed  that  the  superior  keeping  of  the  English  cattle 


NEAT    CATTJ/E.  lOrj 

consists  very  much,  if  not  principally  in  the  quantity  of  succu- 
lent food  with  which  they  are  fed  during  the  winter  season, 
such  as  turnips,  potatoes,  beet^,  carrots,  &c. 

This  opinion  must  derive  great  influence  from  the  consider- 
ation, that  nearly  one  half  of  the  year  during  the  cold  season, 
the  food  with  which  our  cattle  are  kept,  is  such  as  has  lost  a 
very  large  proportion  of  its  most  nutritive  constituents,  by  dry- 
ing* it  for  preservation. 

On  this  subject  the  following  remarks  from  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  Repository,  are  pertinent  and  interesting  : 

"It  is  observed  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  to  whom  agricultural 
science  is  much  indebted,  that  although  the  mode  in  which 
manures  operate  on  soils,  is  not  so  obvious  to  the  senses  as  to 
be  fully  understood,  there  are  three  ways  in  which  water  pro- 
motes their  improvement.  Tt  preserves  a  favorable  degree  of 
temperature  ;  feeds  by  conveying  nourishing  substances  ;  and 
so  as  a  pure  element,  it  is  beneficial.  To  prove  that  water 
enters  largely  into  the  composition  of  vegetables,  and  is  thus 
advantageous,  the  same  writer  observes:  "That  plants,  cut 
green,  and  afterwards  dried,  lose  by  evaporation  C6  to  70  parts 
of  100.  The  loss  of  weight  by  drying,  will  be  found  in  this 
country  to  vary  essentially  from  what  takes  place  in  Scotland, 
especially  as  it  respects  difierent  plants.  But  our  hay  is  of 
necessity  made  lighter  by  the  heat  of  our  summer,  as  well  as 
for  the  purpose  of  its  being  stowed  in  large  bodies  and  tight 
barns. 

It  should  be  premised,  that  the  time  of  cutting  the  several 
grasses  as  m  the  following  statement,  was  the  same  as  is  usu- 
ally practised  by  husbandmen  in  New-England. 

bf  lOOlba.  of  vegetables  cured  in  1822,  the  product  was  as 
follows,  viz. 

lUOlbs,  of  grfen  white  clover,  gave  of  hay,         -         17  1  Slba. 
lOOlbs.  of  red  do.     gave         -         -         -    £7  1.21bsv 

100]!)s.  of  herds  grass  gave    -         -         -         40 

lOOibs.  of  frfsh  meaciovy  gave        —         _         _    3H 

lOOU)?.  of  sal'- grass  gave     -         -         -         39 

lOOlbs.  of  mixed  2d  crop  or  Eng.  Rowan       -         -    18  3-4 
lOOlbs.  of  corn-stalks  gave     -         -         -         £5 

lOOlb?.  of  do.  cut  in  milk  with  the  ear    -         -         -26 
It  should  be  observed  that  the  weight  will  vary  from  ripeness, 
and  many   other  causes,   such  as  wetness  of  season,    shade, 
thickness  of  growth,  &c. 

It  appears  from  the  above  experiment,  that  eight  hundred 
pounds  of  those  vegetables  on  which  we  usually  keep  our  cattle 
in  the  winter,    there  is  a  loss  of  five  hundred  and  sixty-nine 


154 


AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 


pounds  and  one  qaarter  of  their  weight,  by  drying  it  for  a  state 
of  preservation:  and  when  we  consider  the  great  prevalence  df 
water  in  the  composition  of  vegetables,  we  are  led  to  conclude 
that  this  loss  consists  of  those  substantial  aliments  which  are  es- 
sential to  the  support  of  animal  life." 

It  must  be  expected  then,  that  the  growth  of  cattle,  fed  only 
on  such  food  during  nearly  half  the  3''ear,  anl  often  only  a  scan- 
ty pittance  of  that,  will  be  stunted  in  their  growth. 

It  may  be  observed  that  there  is  a  certain  period  of  time,  in 
which  animals,  according  to  the  laws  which  govern  their 
growth,  arrive  to  maturity,  and  beyond  which  their  natural 
weight  will  not  be  increased.  If  then,  during  a  considerable 
part  of  this  time,  to  wit,  that  part  in  which  they  are  kept  on  dry 
food  through  the  cold  season,  the  progress  of  their  growth  is  re- 
tarded, or  perhaps  stayed  intirely,  they  never  can  be  expected 
to  arrive  to  that  size  and  value,  as  if  they  were  so  nurtured  that 
their  growth  continually  progressed  until  they  arrived  to  the 
utmost  extent  of  size  and  value  of  which  their  constitutions 
would  admit.  If  then,  a  plenty  of  succulent  food  given  to  cat- 
,  tie,  thrDugh  the  cold  season,  will  in  a  great  measure  have  the  ef- 
fect to  continue  their  growth,  it  is  a  natural  conclusion,  that 
such  nurture  of  cattle,  by  the  English  farmers,  is  one  great 
cause  of  the  great  superiority  of  theirs  to  those  in  general  of 
our  own  country. 

When  roots  of  any  description,  proper  and  useful  to  feed  cat- 
tle, are  preserved  from  the  frost  for  furnishing  food  during  the 
winter  season,  it  is  well  known  that  they  retain  their  native  jui- 
ces; and  it  is  pretty  evident  from  the  observation  and  experi- 
ence of  the  English  farmers,  as  well  as  from  some  of  our  own, 
-that  those  alimentary  juices  in  such  roots,  are  a  most  efficacious 
substitute  for  green  cropfe  of  grass.  And  there  is  no  doubt  but 
that  those  cattle  in  England,  so  distinguished  for  their  extraor- 
dinary sire,  and  valuable  properties,  are  in  a  great  measure  in- 
debted to  their  being  kept  in  part  on  succulent  food  through  the 
cold  season. 

Perhaps  it  may  not  be  for  the  farming  interest,  at  present,  to 
go  so  extensbively  into  the  system  of  raising  roots  for  the  feed- 
ing of  cattle,  as  is  practised  in  England  and  some  other  parts  of 
Europe,  because  we  have  more  land  for  grazing,  and  the  price  of 
labor  here  is  much  higher.  But  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  it 
would  greatly  improve  the  farming  interest,  to  make  the  use  of 
succulent  food  for  cattle,  the  means  by  which  we  may  gradu- 
ally improve  the  breed,  instead  of  incurring  the  enormous  ex- 
pense of  importing  cattle  for  that  purpose  from  Europe ;  and 


NEAT    CATTLE. 


156 


by  which  means,  too,  the  farmer  may  derive  more  immediate 
profit  from  the  stock  which  is  now  in  his  possession. 

The  editor  of  this  work  is  aware  of  the  objections  which  are 
made  by  our  farmers,  to  the  root  husbandry,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called,  and  especially  to  that  of  turnips.  It  is  said  by  some, 
they  are  a  precarious  crop,  being  exposed  to  the  ravages  ot 
insects :  and  by  others  that  they  are  of  little  utility  as  food  for 

Mr.*  Curwen,  in  England,  who  has  been  considered  a  great 
authority  on  tlie  subject,  and  a  practical  farmer,  relied  on  tur- 
nips and  straw  onlv,  for  his  cattle,  with  occasional  steamed 
chuff  and  salt,  and  never  gave  them  corn,  oil-cake  or  hay. 

By  that  management  he  observes,  he  converts  all  his  straw 
into  excellent  manure,  keeping  his  grain  for  sale. 

When  we  consider  the  great  diminution  of  the  value  ot 
grasses  by  drying  them  for  preservation,  it  is  worthy  of  great 
consideration  whether  those,  especially,  who  cultivate  smail 
tracts  of  land,  may  not  procure  more  animal  nutriment  from  a 
given  quantity  of  soil  by  the  root  husbandry,  than  would  be  ob- 
tained from  the  cultivation  of  green  vegetables  of  any  descrip- 
tion, allowing  for  the  extra  labor. 

There  are  various  diseases  to  which  neat  cattle  are  subject, 
and  assistance  is  not  often  to  be  obtained  from  those  w^ho  are 
skilful  in  their  cure:  some  account  of  those,  and  the  most  ap- 
proved remedies  may  be  useful  in  this  work. 

Hoof  ail.— Cause  of  the  disease  is  not  well  known.  The 
feet  become  diseased,  and  then  they  are  frozen  during  the 
course  of  the  winter,  after  which  they  are  of  no  value  except 
for  their  skins.  Feedinsr  them  with  plants  of  rich  food,  and 
keeping  them  well  littered  in  warm  stables,  is  thought  to  be 
the  most  profitable  and  effectual  method  of  avoiding  this  disor- 
der. 

IIoRX  DISTEMPER,  subjects  them  to  a  wasting  of  the  pith  of 
the  horn.  It  is  sometimes  in  one  horn  only,  and  sometimes  in 
both.  Indications  of  the  disease  are  coldness  ofthe  horn, 
dulness  of  the  eyes,  sluggishitess,  want  of  appetite,  and  a  dis- 
position to  lie  down.  Where  the  brain  is  affected,  the  anima- 
will  toss  its  head,  groan,  and  exhibit  indications  of  great  pain. 
Cure  :  bore  a  hole  with  a  small  gimblet  in  the  lower  side  of 
the  horn,  about  an  inch  from  the  head,  and  the  corrupted  mat- 
ter in  the  horn  will  run  out.  If  this  does  not  complete  the  cure^ 
Mr.  Dean  directs,  that  the  horn  have  a  mixture  of  ruin,  honey^ 
myrrh,  and  aloes  thrown  into  itwuth  syringe  ;  and  that  this  be 
repeated  till  a  cure  be  effected. 

T4.lL  SICKNESS.     Cause,  ^enerj^Uy  poor  keeping.    The  euro 


156  AORIClJLTUKAL    ESSAYS. 

is  effected  by  cutting  off  a  small  piece  of  the  tail,  which  will  be 
attended  with  a  small  discharge  of  blood ;  or  when  the  hollow 
part  is  near  the  end,  cut  a  slit  in  it  one  or  two  inches  lono-,  and 
this  will  effect  a  cure.  '° 

Gripes,  or  cholic.  When  attacked  with  it,  they  lie  down 
and  rise  up  incessantly,  and  stick  their  horns  against  any  ob- 
ject that  presents.  It  is  attended  with  either  costiveness  or 
scouring.  In  the  former  case,  they  are  to  be  treated  with  pur- 
gatives, and  in  the  latter,  with  restringents.  To  stop  the  purg- 
ing, give  thern  halfa  pint  of  olive  oil  sweetened  with  sugar;  or 
a  quart  of  ale,  mixed  with  a  few  drops  of  laudanum,  and°two  or 
three  ounces  of  oil  of  sweet  almonds.  To  promote  purging,  give 
them  five  or  six  drachms  of  fine  Barbadoes'  aloes,  and  half' a 
pint  of  brandy,  mixed  with  two  quarts  of  water  gruel,  in  a  luke 
warm  state.  In  either  case,  speedy  attention  to  the  beast  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  an  inflammation  of  the  intestines, 
which  must  prove  fatal. 

Scouring  SYMPTOMS.  Frequent  discharge  of  slimy  excre- 
ment, loss  of  appetite,  loss  of  flesh,  increasing  paleness  of  the 
eyes,  and  general  debility.  Cure.— The  beast  should  be  imme- 
diately housed,  and  put  to  dry  food,  and  this  in  the  early  stage 
of  the  disease  will  generally  effect  a  cure.  Should  this  fail,  it 
is  directed  by  the  same  author  to  boil  a  pound  of  mutton  suet  in 
three  quarts  of  milk,  till  the  former  is  dissolved,  and  give  it  to 
the  beast  in  a  luke  warm  state ;  or  in  obstinate  cases,  boil  half 
a  pound  of  powdered  chalk  in  two  quarts  of  water,  till  it  is  re- 
duced to  three  pints ;  add  four  ounces  of  hartshorn  shavings, 
©ne  of  cassia,  and  stir  the  whole  together ;  when  cold,  add  a 
pint  of  lime  water  and  two  drachms  of  the  tincture  of  opium; 
keep  the  whole  m  a  corked  bottle,  and  after  shaking  it  before 
using,  give  one  or  two  horna  full  two  or  three  times  a  day,  as 
the  nature  of  the  case  may  require.  Sometimes  however,  thia 
disease  proves  incurable. 

HovEN.  Occasioned  by  eating  too  much  when  turned  into 
rich  pastures,  by  swallowing  potatoes,  or  other  roots  without 
sufficient  chewing,  and  to  other  causes.  The  stomach  of  the 
animal  becomes  distended  with  wind,  and  if  a  vent  for  this  can- 
not be  afforded,  the  beast  must  die.  Remedy. — Open  a  hole 
with  a  sharp  pointed  knife,  with  a  blade  three  or  four  inches 
long,  between  the  hip  and  short  ribs,  where  the  swelling  rises 
highest,  and  insert  a  small  tube  in  the  orifice,  till  the  wind  ceas- 
es to  be  troublesome.  The  wound  will  soon  heal  up  again.  Mr. 
Young  recommends  for  curing  this  complaint,  to  take  three- 
fourths  of  a  pmt  of  olive  oil,  and  a  pint  of  melted  butter  or  hog's 
lard,  and  pour  this  mixture  down  the  throat  of  the  beast ;  and 


NEAT    CATTLF.  l^^ 

if  no  favorable  change  be  produced  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
repeat  the  dose.  Fox  sheep,  about  a  gill  should  in  like  man- 
ner be  given,  and  the  dose  repeated  if  necessary.  This,  he 
says,  will  not  fail  of  a  cure  in  half  an  hour.  To  prevent  this 
disorder,  cattle  should  not  be  turned  at  first  with  empty  stom- 
achs into  rich  pastures  ;  nor  should  they  be  allowed  to  feed  on 
potatoes,  and  some  other  roots,  without  their  first  being  cut 
into  pieces. 

Staggers. — This  disease  is  known  by  the  drowsiness,  leth- 
argy, and  straggling  gait  of  the  animal.  It  is  sometimes  occa- 
sioned by  plethora  or  fullness  of  blood,  and  sometimes  it  is 
seated  on  the  brain;  in  which  case  it  is  incurable,  except  by 
trepanning.  In  the  former  case,  the  remedy  is  to  keep  the 
■beast  housed,  and  bleed  and  purge  it  sufficiently. 

Overflowing  of  the  gall,  and  which  is  sometimes  cal- 
led yellows  or  jaundice,  is  known  by  yellow  tinge  in  the 
moutl#and  eyes,  and  sometimes  the  body  assumes  a  yellow- 
ish cast,  the  nose  is  dry ;  the  udder  of  the  cow  becomes  swol- 
len, and  yields  but  little  milk,  which  also  becomes  yellow, 
and  curdled  when  boiled,  and  sometimes  the  fore  teeth  become 
.very  loose.  Remedy. — The  beast  should  be  housed,  and  have 
two  or  three  gentle  purges  ;  then  give  it  twice  a  day  a  pint  of 
beer,  in  w^hich  has  been  infused,  for  three  or  fo  t  days,  about  en 
ounce  to  each  quart  of  the  filings  of  iron,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
hard  soap.  Let  the  beast  be  vvell  kept  during  the  time  with 
warm  messes  of  bran,  and  other  nourishing  food,  to  which 
some  olive  oil,  and  other  purgative  medicine  should  be  added, 
if  the  beast  be  restive.  For  curing  this  distemper  Mr.  Dean 
directs,  to  take  an  egg  and  empty  it  of  its  white,  retaining  its 
yolk,  and  fill  the  cavity  with  equal  quantities  of  soot,  salt, 
and  black  pepper;  draw  out  the  tongue  of  the  beast,  and  with 
a  smooth  stick  push  the  egg  down  its  throat.'  Repeat 
this  two  or  three  mornings,  and  be  says,  it  will  seldom  fail  of 
a  cure.  Sometimes  this  distemper  does  not  yield  to  the  pow- 
er of  medicine,  but  at  length  turns  to  the  black  jaundice 
"which  is  incurable. 

PA?fTASiE. — Syp»^tomsare  the  panting  or  heaving  of  the 
animal's  flanks,  w^ich  is  accompanied  with  trembling  and  a 
decay  of  flesb.  Remedy. — House  the  beast,  and  give  it  every 
six  hours  <^ring  the   continuance  of  the   chilly  symptoms,  6 


•158  JLGRIC\?LTURAL    ESSA'Y^. 

quart  of  warm  strong  beer  in  which  a  table  spoonful  of  lauda- 
nura,another  of  ground  ginger,and  two  of  the  spirits  of  hartshorn 
have  been  infused.  The  beast  should  be  fed  on  sweet  hay 
and  well  littered.  Its  drink  should  be  warm  water  with  a  lit- 
tle nitre  dissolved  in  it,  if  there  be  symptoms  of  fever.  As  it 
gains  strength,  let  it  out  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  until  such 
time  as  it  has  fully  recovered. 

Inflamation  or  the  liver. — Indicated  by  fever,  difficult 
breathing,  and  swelling  near  the  shorter  ribs,  and  in  cows  a  re- 
markable distemper  about  the  womb.  Cattle  afflicted  with 
this  disorder  will  never  fatten.  It  is  said  to  be  hereditary 
sometimes  in  certain  breeds ;  in  which  case  it  is  incurable. 
Remedy.  House  the  beast,  bleed  it  profusely,  and  give  it  the 
following  medicine  in  a  tepid  state,  to  wit,  salt  petre  and  glau- 
ber  salts  of  eacli  two  ounces ;  Venice  treacle,  mithridate  and 
white  ginger  pulverized,  of  each  one.ounce  ;  let  them  be  boil- 
ed in  three  pints  of  water,  in  which  maybe  gradually  #.dded, 
one  gill  of  oil  of  sweet  almonds,  the  whole  being  stirred  to- 
gether. This  is  sufficient  for:  one  dose,  which  should  be  re- 
peated the  succeeding  day.  Warm  messes  of  bran  should  be 
the  principal  diet  of  the  beast  till  it  has  recovered. 

Inflamation  of  the  lungs:  indicated  by  shortness  of 
4)reath  and  a  painful  cough.  The  animal  looks  dull ;  the  skin 
is  hot  and  harsh;  and  a  copious  discharge  of  thick  ropy 
phlegm  issues  from  its  moutb.  Remedy. — House  the  beast, 
bleed  it  plentifully,  and  give  it  a  dose  composed  of  the  flower 
of  sulphur,  balsam  of  sulphur,  syrup  of  colts  foot,  and  oil  of 
,sweet  almonds  ;  of  each  one  ounce,  blended  together.  If  the 
above  treatment  produces  no  visible  alteration  in  eighteen 
hours,  repeat  it.  Probably  any  other  purge  would  answer  as 
well  as  the  above.  Let  the  beast  be  kept  comfortable,  and 
have  some  exercise  every  day  till  it  recovers. 

The  locked  jaw  is  saia  to  be  similar  to  that  in  the  hu- 
man frafne,  caused  by  similar  moans,  and  requires  a  similar 
treatment.  If  the  beast  be  hardy,  opiate  frictions,  and  dash- 
ing on  of  cold  water,  is  recommended.  If  it  be  of  slender  con- 
stitution, opiate  frictons,  and  warm  fomentations  of  the  part 
afflicted  is  directed.  As  the  beast  cannot  swallow,  let  gruel 
be  poured  down  its  throat  with  a  horn,  till  the  dib^^der  is  re- 
iBQved., 


'rfEAT   CATTLE.  159° 

Cattle  are  sometimes  poisoned,  by  eating  poisonous  plants 
or  being  bit  with  mad  dogs.  In  the  latter  case,  if  the  wound- 
ed part  be  cut  away  shortly  after  the  bite,  and  then  be  kept 
open  for  some  time,  it  is  thought  to  be  the  only  effectual  rem- 
edy. It  is  said  that  any  medicine  which  is  very  strongly  anti- 
gpasmodic,  if  given  plentifully,  and  in  proper  season,  will  coun- 
teract the  effects  of  the  bite  of  mad  animals. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  cattle  in  a  plethoric  or  state,  when- 
pver  fed  wi'h  rich  food,  or  where  too  suddenly  surfeited  with 
it,  are  suddenly  indisposed  and  carried  off  before  relief  can 
be  given.  It  is  believed,  that  among  the  horned  race,  either 
plentiful  bleeding,  or  purging,  or  both  will  be  found  a  preven- 
tative, and  in  mjst  instances,  a  cure  of  the  maladies  which 
are  usually  most  fatal  to  them  from  the  full  habit. 

When  oxen  are  drav/n  hardly  in  muddy  roads,  especially  if 
the  soil  is  calcairous,  they  are  liable  to  a  soreness  between 
their  claws.  This  will  make  the  beast  lame  ;  and  when  dis- 
covered, the  part  should  be  cleansed  and  healed,  with  some 
proper  ointment.  Sometimes  from  inattention  to  this,  the 
part  becomes  horny  ;  in  this  case,  the  hard  parts  must  be  cut 
av.-ay,  and  the  w^ounded  flesh  cured. 

A  general  indication  of  health  in  neat  cattle  is  a  moist  or 
vvet  nose,  and  when  this  is  found  dry,  it  is  a  certain  symptom  of 
disease  of  some  kind  or  other. 

Cows  have  some  diseases  which  are  peculiar  to  them. 

It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  udder  of  the  cow  is  divid- 
ed into  as  many  apartments  as  there  are  teats,  so  that  if  one 
or  more  of  those  is  diseased,  this  does  not  affeet  the  rest.  The 
milk  of  one  teat  may  be  good  and  that  of  another  bad. 

Garget. — The  name  of  this  disease  denotes  any  hard  swel- 
ling in  the  udder.  As  one  remedy,  Mr.  Deane  recommends 
making  a  rowel  or  seton  in  the  dewlap,  and  inserting  therein 
a  piece  of  the  root  ofmechoacan,  as  large  as  a  nut  meg,  with  a 
string  fastened  to  it,  so  that  it  may  be  drawn  out  when  the 
cure  IS  effected  ;  and  this,  he  says  will  cause  a  revulsion  of 
the  humor  in  the  udder  into  the  orifice,  in  the  dewlap,  where  it 
will  be  discharged.  When  the  cure  is  effected,  the  piece  of 
root  IS  to  be  drawn  out  by  the  string.  Piobably  a  common 
rowel  placed  in  the  breast,  or  dewlap,  would  answer  the  samar 
purpose. 

In  obstinate  cases  of  ulcerated  udders,  the  Complete  Grazier- 


iGO  A6RIGULTURAL  ESSAYS. 

recommends,  to  take  gum  amoniac,  gum  galbanum,  castile 
soap,  and  extract  of  hemlock,  of  each  one  ounce ;  form  therft 
into  eight  bolusses,  and  give  one  every  mornmg  and  evening. 
The  same  author  observes,  tljat  internal  remedies  are  al- 
ways necessary  where  the  udder  and  teats  are  considerably 
inflamed,  and  for  this  purpose,  he  says,  he  takes  four  ounces 
of  nitre  mixed  with  a  pound  of  common  salt;  give  two  table 
spoonfuls  of  this  powder  in  a  gallon  of  thin  water  gruel  every 
three  hours. 

Where  the  inflamations  are  less  violent,  and  exhibit  no 
symptoms  ofincreasing  rapidly,  it  may  answer  to  anoint  the 
udder  frequently  through  the  day  with  fresh  butter,  or  with  a 
salve  made  of  an  ounce  of  castile  soap,  dissolved  m  a  pint  of 
sweet  milk  over  a  gentle  fire  ;  or  with  an  ointment  made  with 
the  juice  of  the  leaves  of  them,  mixed  with  hog's  lard;  if  the 
malady  increase,  about  a  drachm  of  calomel  may  be  given  in 
a  horn,  full  of  warm  beer. 

When  the  teats  are  only  sore,  they  may  be  washed  with 
aoapsuds  and  rubbed  with  anointment  made  of  white  lead  and 
^oose  grease,  or  fresh  butter. 

Puerperal  FEVER,  is  caused  by  (aking  cold  while  calving. 
Cows  thus  affected  should  have  warm  housing,  and  it  is  said 
the  head  should  be  placed  highest  to  assist  the  natural  dis- 
charges. Blood  should  not  be  taken  except  in  violent  cases, 
5nd  then  only  at  the  commencement  of  the  disorder. 


Nurture  and  Mana»ement  of  the  different  kindb 
or  Sheep. 

This  subject  has  been  treated  with  great  ability  by  Mr.  Liv- 
ingston, of  New-York ;  hut  -as  his  writings  on  this  branch  of 
rural  economy  are  not  extensively  circulated,  it  is  believed  the 
following  extract  from  them  may  render  these  essays  more 
'aseful  to  the  American  farmer. 

It  is  probable  that  different  climates  and  soils  have  done 
•pauch  in  producing  differences  ainong-  sheep ;  and  probably 


SHEtP. 


161 


different  kinds,  as  we  now  find  them,  have  descended  from 
stocks  which  were  of  the  same  genus,  but  possessing  proper- 
ties  different  from  each  other.  It  has  been  found  that  different 
soils  are  best  suited  to  different  breeds  of  sheep  :  and  that  the 
soil  often  serves  eventually  to  produce  a  difference  in  sheep. 
Fat  pastures,  it  has  been  observed,  breed  straight,  tall  sheep, 
and  the  barren  hills,  short,  square  ones.  The  large  long 
wooled  sheep  of  Great  Britain  require  rich  pastures  ;  and  it 
has  been  thought  will  suit  them  belter  than  any  other  sheep. 
A  wet  soil,  salt  marshes  excepted,  is,  however,  unfriendly  to- 
sheep  of  all  kinds. 

It  is  important  that  farmers,  in  stocking  their  farms  wiUi 
sheep,  should  pay  attention  to  such  as  are  best  suited  to  theii 

soil.  1     J     ■     V 

It  is  believed  that  much  of  the  high,  moist  lands  m  the 
northern  and  middle  States,  would  be  found  suitable  for  rais- 
ing the  large  long  wooled  English  sheep. 

But  in  the  United  States,  as  well  as  in  England,  it  is  an  ob* 
ject  worthy  of  attention,  to  have  our  farms  stocked  with  sheep 
of  various  kinds,  that  our  citizens  may  be  supplied  with  the 
various  sorts  of  cloths  which  are  necessary  in  different  uses. 
In  England,  they  have  the  Teeswater,  the  Lincolnshire,  and 
the  DELTtmoor  breeds,  which  yield  fleeces  of  long  coarse  wool, 
weighing  on  an  average,  from  eight  to  eleven  pounds.  The 
wool  of  those  sheep,  and  of  the  Heath,  Exmere,  and  Berkshire 
breeds,  which  are  smaller,  and  have  still  coarser  wool,  is  made 
use  of  for  the  manufacture  of  blankets,  carpets,  and  other 
cloths  of  a  coarse  texture.  The  New-Leicester  and  Bakewell 
breeds,  and  the  Eastwold,  and  Romney-marsh  breeds,  have 
long  wool  also,  but  somewhat  finer,  being  better  fitted  for  the 
manufacture  of  worsted  fabricks ;  and  the  average  weight  of 
their  fleeces  is  from  eight  to  nine  pounds  ;  the  average  weight 
of  their  quarters  is  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-four  pounds. 
The  Bakewell  is  an  improved  breed,  which  was  engrafted 
upon  some  of  those  before  mentioned,  and  are,  it  is  said,  high- 
ly esteemed  for  the  fatness  of  their  carcases,  and  the  fine  fla- 
vor of  their  mutton.  The  English  have  also  various  other 
breeds  besides  the  meri^io,  yielding  fleeces  of  short  wool  of 
various  quantities  and  qualities,  the  finest  of  which  are  the 
Dunfaced  and  Shetland  breeds  ;  the  next  finest  is  the  Hereford, 
or  Ryeland  breed,  and  the  next  the  South  Downs.  The  latter, 
it  is  said,  very  much  resemble  our  common  sheep,  having  wool 
about  equally  fine,  and  that  in  England  they  are  esteemed 
0  2 


i^ 


AGRICULTURAL    ESSAtS. 


next  to  the  Bakewell  breed.  There  is  a  new  breed  rearing 
in  Virginia,  by  a  Mr.  Custis,  which  he  calls  the  Arlington 
sheep,  that  yield  fleeces  of  long  wool,  well  fitted  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  worsted  fabricks.  They  are  said  to  be  a  mixture 
of  the  Bakewell  breed,  with  a  long  wooled  Persian  ram.  which 
was  imported  by  Gen.  Washington. 

The  island  called  Smith's  Island,  lying  off  the  eastern  cape 
of  Virginia,  is  remarkable  for  producing  a  breed  of  sheep  of 
uncommonly  fine  wool,  which  on  account  of  the  largeness  and 
fineness  of  their  fleeces,  promise  to  be  highly  valuable,  provid- 
ed the  breed  does  not  degenerate,  in  a  few  years,  when  takei> 
trom  that  Island.  They  are  shorn  twice  a  year,  and  some  of 
their  fleeces  weigh  four  pounds  at  each  shearing. 

These  are  the  only  breeds  of  this  animal  which  it  is  neces- 
sary to  notice ;  and  the  introduction  of  all  these,  it  is  evident, 
might  be  greatly  conducive  to  the  farming  interest  of  the  Uni- 
ted States ;  and  to  derive  the  greatest  advantage  from  them 
It  is  obvious  from  the  above  account,  that  the  great  diversity 
of  our  soil  requires  different  breeds  suited  to  each,  by  their 
particular  constitutions  and  habits. 

It  is  well  known  that  any  considerable  improvements,  even 
in  our  common  breed  of  sheep,  have  not  been  made  in  this 
country  until  within  a  few  years  ;  little  or  no  attention  having 
been  paid  to  appropriating  to  them  the  soil  best  suited  to  the 
particular  breed  we  might  happen  to  possess. 
^  A  proper  consideration  of  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  sheep  that  have  been  mentioned,  may  induce 
the  farmer  to  introduce  such  as  may  best  comport  with  his 
disposition  and  his  mterest. 

The  merino  breed  hav€  of  late  been  considered  the  most 
profitable. 

Though  it  may  be  doubtful  whether  the  extraordinary  price 
which  their  wool  has  heretofore  commanded,  has  been  of  gen- 
eral utility  to  our  country,  unless  it  might  be  considered  an  un- 
avoidable tax,  necessarily  imposed  by  those  who  introduced 
them.  It  IS  believed  to  be  well  for  our  farmers  generally,  that 
U\e  mcrease  of  the  merino  sheep  has  so  soon  diminished  the 
price  of  the  wool,  as  might  be  expected  ;  as  the  profits  which 
have  heretofore  been  engrossed  by  a  few  speculators,  are  now 
becoming  generally  distributed  among  tfee  great  mass  of  our 
common  farmers.  One  of  the  greatest  advantages  to  be  de- 
nved  from  this  breed  of  sheep,  is  to  enable  us  to  manufacture 
a  finer  quality  of  cloth  from  our  own  produce,  which  we  should 


3HEEr.  lo: 


otherwise  import  from  foreign  countries.  li  is  found  also, 
that  by  mixing  the  breed  with  our  common  sheep,  the  wool 
which  is  intended  for  cloth  of  a  coarser  quality,  is  thereby 
greatly  improved.  Mr.  Livingston  says,  that  in  improving  the 
breed  of  these  sheep,  the  size  of  the  ewes,  more  than  that  of 
the  ram,  governs  the  size  of  their  lambs  ;  that  the  ewes  of  a 
email  race  cannot  bear  large  lambs,  though  the  ram  be  ever 
so  large.  For  this  reason,  the  lambs  which  are  raised  from  a 
merino  ram  on  our  common  ewes,  will  be  larger  than  those 
raised  from  one  of  our  common  rams  on  merino  ewes.  This  is 
the  reason  why  rams  of  thp  large  English  breed,  when  brought 
here,  do  not  produce  a  race  any  way  corresponding  to  tlfeir 
own  size.  He  therefore  recommends  the  engrafting'a  merino 
stock  upon  our  common  ewes,  to  increase  the  size  of  the  breed; 
though  if  they  only  eat  in  proportion  to  their  size,  as  has  been 
proved  in  many  experiment?,  this  is  not  so  material. 

The  following  rule  is  given  for  a  judicious  selection  of  the 
€wes  :  Let  them  be  at  least  three  years  old,  as  large  as  can 
be  obtained  of  the  sort,— with  the  belly  large  and  well  covered 
with  wool,  chine  and  loin  broad,  breast  deep,  buttocks  full  the 
eyes  lively,  the  bag  large,  and  the  teats  long.  In  addition  to 
these  qualities,  they  should  have  fine,  short,'  thick  wool,  their 
belUes  well  covered,  and  with  the  least  hair  on  the  hinder 
parts.  Li  the  choice  of  the  ram,  which  we-wiU  suppose  to  be 
three  fourths  blooded,  select  one  that  is  of  good  size,  broad  in 
the  chine  and  loins,  deep  in  th€  carcase,  the  back  straight,  the 
ribs  well  set  cut,  so  as  to  give  room  for  a  lar^e  belly  well  cov- 
ered with  wool,  the  forehead  broad,  the  eyes  lively,  (a  heavy 
eye  being  a  mark  of  a  diseased  sheep)  let  him  also  be  strong 
close  knit,  and  active,  of  which  vou  can  judge  by  taking  hold 
of  his  hind  legs ;  and  let  his  wool  be  of  a  good  quality,  and  as 
clear  of  hair  in  the  hinder  parts,  as  possible.  It  is  said  that 
the  product  of  such  a  ram  with  common  ewes,  would  be  lambs 
possessing  nine  twenty-fourth  parts  of  merino  blood  •  and 
twice  repeating  the  females  of  the  successive  products  would 
give  three  fourths  blooded  lambs.  Two  further  repetitions 
trom  a  tull  blooded  ram,  w-ould  give  lambs  possessino-  fifteen- 
sixteenths  of  merino  blood,  which  is  probably  sufficient.  The 
ram  shoiild  be  changed  at  each  time  ;  as  the  rearing  of  suc- 
ceeding stocks  between  which  there  is  the  closest  consanguin- 
ity, must  inevitably  tend  to  degenerate  the  breed. 

♦uT  ^^^u^^""^  °(  ^^^  ^^"°^  ^^^^P  ^ay  be  some  later  than 
that  of  others,  as  their  wool  nev^r  falls  off.    The  merino  woo* 


1G4  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

cannot  be  washed  sufficiently  until  after  shearing.  But  fhose 
sheep  whose  fleeces  are  washed  before,  should  be  kept  some 
days  previous  to  shearing,  after  they  are  washed,  which  will 
render  the  shearing  more  easy,  and  require  less  oil  to  be  af- 
terwards added  for  spinning.  The  fleece  of  the  merino  sheep 
being  more  close,  this  operation  is  more  slow  and  difficult,  and 
it  is  thought  best  to  use  for  that  purpose,  shears  with  blades 
much  narrower  than  those  of  the  common  Idnd.  In  England 
it  is  a  common  practice  after  shearing,  to  smear  the  bodies  of 
the  sheep  with  a  mixture  of  tar  and  fresh  butter,  which  serves 
to  cure  the  wounds  in  the  skin,  and  to  fortify  their  bodies  a- 
gainst  the  cold.  This  mixture  may  be  improved  by  a  small 
quantity  of  sulphur.  They  should  be  again  anointed  in  the  month 
of  August,  thoroughly  on  the  back  and  sides,  by  parting  the 
wool  for  that  purpose.  This  ointment  is  useful  to  cure  any 
wound  made  by  cutting,  and  effectually  to  destroy  all  the 
ticks,  which  are  very  pernicious  to  sheep.  During  cold  rains 
and  cold  nights  after  shearing,they  should  be  placed  where  they 
can  go  into  their  house,  or  place  of  shelter,  when  they  please ', 
as  they  know  best  when  they  want  shelter,  and  when  they  be- 
come so  warm  as  to  require  the  open  air. 

They  should  at  all  times  have  plenty  of  salt,  but  particularly 
after  shearing,  as  it  is  a  stimulus  which  enables  them  to  with- 
stand the  cold  the  better. 

*  A  warm  sun  is  injurious  to  the  backs  of  sheep  after  shearingf 
their  pasture  should  therefore  have  some  shade,  to  which  they 
can  retire  during  the  heat  of  the  day. 

The  wool  of  yearling  sheep  should  be  kept  by  itself,  because 
not  having  the  same  texture  or  strength  which  the  wool  of 
older  sheep  has,  it  will  make  the  cloth  shrink  unequally  if  mix- 
ed wit)i  such  wool.  Some  think  it  best  to  sort  the  other  fleeces 
also,  at  shearing  time,  making  separate  parcels  of  the  thighs, 
the  belly,  and  the  back  sides,  as  the  texture  of  these  is  often  so 
different  as  to  render  it  inexpedient  to  wash  it  together. 

The  follov/ing  is  an  European  method  of  managing  merino 
wool  before  carding.  After  it  has  been  sorted,  and  is  to  be 
manufactured  in  the  family,  let  it  be  covered  with  soft  water, 
mixed  with  one  third  urine,  and  stand  fifteen  hours,  or  longer 
if  the  weather  be  cold.  A  cauldron  is  then  to  be  put  in  the 
fire  with  some  soft  water,  and  two  thirds  of  that  which  covers 
the  fleeces  be  added  to  it.  When  so  hot  that  the  hand  cannot  v 
bear  it,  take  out  the  wool,  put  it  in  a  basket,  put  the  basket  in 
the  cauldron,  and  then  wash  the  wool  by  pressing,  without  any 


SKEEP.  ^^^ 

u'rincringofit,  and  then  cleanse  it  in  running  water.  If  this 
water  in  the  cauldron  become  too  dirty,  take  more  from  that  m 
wh  ch  It  was  tirst  soaked.  Dry  the  wool  in  the  fade  not  m 
he  sun  ;  let  it  then  be  beaten  with  a  rod,  which  takes  out  all 
eeds  &c  and  softens  it ;  then  pick  it  by  opening  it  lengthwise 
carefiilY,  and  card  it  with  cotton,  not  witn  wool  cards 

Cardmc  machines  are  not  to  be  used  for  this  wool,  unless 

^t?S^l:n£^-r,  is  of  the  o^nionthat  if  the  wc^Ue 
carefully  picked  and  carded,  so  as  to  get  out  most  of  Uie 
dirt,  and  woven  in  this  way,  that  it  will  answer  without  wash- 
ing  in  which  case  less  oil  or  greace  ^^ill  ^e^^^^^'^^J/,  „  „v 
Mr  Daubentor,  a  celebrated  French  Agriculturalist  has  ob- 
servek,that  when'his  sheep  were  fed  on  dry  dodder  during  the 

winter  season,  many  of  the  yo"?^,^."^!  ^^,t^P,^l°J'  ^which 
he  found,  on  opening  them,  the  tood  in  the  third  stomach,  which 
is  that  which  receives  the  food  after  the  second  chewing,  to  be 
so  dry  as  to  be  unfit  for  digestion,  and  to  this  cause  he  ascribes 
their^death.  This  state  of  the  stomach  he  concludes,  is  produ- 
ced by  t^e  sudden  change  of  food  from  g-f.^^^^^f  ttVa^^^ 
der  The  antidote  against  this,  is  to  leed  them  when  they  are 
firsi  put  to  hay,  with  I  proportion  of  succulent  food,  such  as  po- 
tatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  cabbages,  rape,  &c. 

Those  farmers  who  would  succeed  well  m  raising  a  good 
breed  of  sheep,  should  make  it  an  object  of  par  icular  attention^^ 
to  adopt  this  practice  of  feeding  their  sheep  with  these  kmds  of 
vegetables,  especially  at  the  setting  in  of  winter. 

It  is  ver;  probable  that  the  superiority  of  the  sheepjn  Great- 
Britain  is  owing  altogether  to  their  different  mode  oi  keeping 
S  r'especialfy  to  their  keeping  them  through  the  w^^^^^^^^^ 
succulent  food,  as  they  do  their  cattle  ;  by  "^^^^^f  ^^^f  ^.;^J 
*re  not  stunted  in  their  grovyth  until  they  ^7^y.^t°/^^\^,g^,  ^^  I 
signed  for  them,  to  acquire  the  utmost  extent  of  size  which  their 
nature  and  constitution  will  admit.  The  farmers  m  England 
and  some  of  the  first  practical  farmers  in  the  United  States,  do 
not  Uiinkthey  can  well  succeed  in  rearing  and  e^PP^rting  a 
good  breed  of  sheep,  without  feeding  them  abundantly  through 
the  winter  with  succulent  food,  such  as  carrots,  turnips,  &ic. 


■^^  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAY^ 

The  following  are  seme  of  the  most  common  diieases  to  wMVk 
B^eeparehable,  with  the  remedies  whichTavT;r":d%"ffi"a' 


CIOUS. 

Ro- 
in  men. 


Rot.    a  disease  in  sheep  similar  to  pulmonary  consnmntmn 

ine  same  manner  as  persons  m  a  hectic.     The  sick  in  the  flock 

sivc  mornmgs,  w,ll  probably  offect  a  cure :    as  the  addition  cf 
SL  k",  a""^  ""'"?'■  ""^  <"Jy  ^'"''es  the  pungency  of  the  dis    ' 

w  til  about  sixty  grains  of  iron  filings,  by  means  of  flour  »nd 
».trouuced   into  the  sheep's  throat  Wc'ry^rrnrngfTr'  ^Se 

.JX'^^'rsV'm'^  '"'  '"^  "'  '"  ^''^^P-  '^  <■-»  Young V 

.Z'^r  ^f ""'  "'"^1"^  ^'^  "^^y^  ''«'^^««n  each  Ze.  Thl  5' 
fleecXXtn'nV'f'^  with  success,  even  in  cases  where  the 
neecella»  been  nearly  gone,   and  the  throat  terribly  swelled." 

.„?*^*?v    '^'"^  appears  by  the  sheep  rubbing  the  nart  affected 
afldpullmg.  out  the  wool  in  that  part  with  fheirSh    or  bV'  ' 
Iw  '.<"=''^°'^^^™°J  rising  on  their  backs  and  shiuldirs     "The 

self  Cd't'h!  'f,"''' '°  ''J  '*''^"  '■'•'"'  the  floci,  and  pul  bfu 
self,  and  then  the  part  affected  is  to  have  the  wool  taken  off 
asfaras  the  skin  feels  hard  to  the  finger,  washed  with  soan 

SkThe'stab'  Tl'  "'''"■''  ^'"'^  ""'"'  -  - '0 'reaie  a£ 
,f„»„        •     J       ,.^''^"  ='"""'*  '"■  with  a  decoction  of  tobacco  4 
water,  mixed  with  the  third  of  ley  of  wood  ashes    afmuch 


SHEEP.  167 

grease  as  this  ley  will  dissolve,  a  small  quantity  of  tar,  and  a- 
bout  an  eighth  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  spirits  of  turpentine. 
This  ointment  is  to  be  rubbed  on  the  part  affected,  and  for 
some  little  distance  around  it,  at  three  different  times,  with  an 
interval  of  three  days  after  each  washing.  With  timely  precau- 
tion,  this   will  always   be  foimd  sufficient. 

Sir  Joseph  Banks,  in  a  communication  to  the  society  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  arts,  directs,  also,  for  this  disorder,  pure 
quicksilver  one  pound,  of  hoo-*s  lard,  four  pounds,  to  be  tritur- 
ated in  a  mortar  till  the  mercury  be  completely  incorporated 
with  the  ingredients.  The  method  of  using  this  ointment  is  as 
follows:  the  head  of  the  sheep  must  first  be  rubbed,  after  which 
a  furrow  is  to  be  drawn  with  the  finger  from  the  region  be- 
tween the  ears,  along  the  back  to  the  point  of  the  tail,  so  as  to 
divide  the  wool  till  the  skin  be  exposed  to  the  touch.  Next,  the 
fingers,  being  shghtly  dipped  in  the  preparation,  should  be 
drawn  along  the  skin.  Similar  lines  should  be  opened  down 
the  shoulders  and  thighs,  as  far  as  the  wool  extends ;  and  if  the 
animal  be  considerably  infected,:two  other  furrows  are  directed 
to  be  traced  parallel  to  that  on  the  back,  and  one  should  like- 
wise be  drawn  downward  on  each  side  between  the  fore  and 
hind  legs.  After  this  application,  the  sheep  may  be  turned  a- 
mong  the  flock,  without  any  danger  of  the  infection  being 
communicated. 

Another  remedy  is,  an  ointment  composed  of  three  parts 
grease,  and  one  of  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Ticks.  These  may  be  destroyed  by  oil,  a  strong  decoction 
oT tobacco,  or  tobacco  smoke.  The  smoke  may  be  taken  mto 
the  bellows,  the  wool  opened^  the  smoke  blown  in,  and  the  wool 
closed.  This  should  be  repeated  at  proper  distances,  over  eve- 
ry part  of  the  body . 

A  still  easier  method,  though  perhaps  not  so  immediately  ef- 
ficacious, is,  to  part  the  wool  of  the  animal  on  each  side  of  its 
spine,  from  its  head  to  its  tail,  and  drop  some  Scotch  snuff  in 
(the  opening. 

I  Staggers  is  a  species  of  the  apoplexy,  arising  from  too 
Igreat  fuUnes  of  blood.  It  principally  attacks  young  lambs, 
,  which  fall  down,  and  if  not  timely  relieved,  immediately  perish. 
ui'^j^l"^^'''  of  cure,  generally  adopted  by  shepherds,  is  to 
I  bleed  the  creatures  frequently  in  the  eve  vein,  and  to  remove 
|them  scarce  to  a  pasture,  with  a  view  to  prevent  a  relapse. 


168  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

HovEN,  or  SWOLLEN.  It  has  been  affirmed  that  a  sinali 
quantity  of  ley,  made  either  of  wood  ashes,  or  pot  or  pearl  ash- 
es, turned  down  the  throat  of  a  sheep  that  is  hoven  or  swollen, 
by  eating  too  much  green  or  succulent  food,  will  give  immedi- 
ate relief. 

Purging.  When  sheep  are  first  turned  to  grass,  a  slight 
purging  will  not  hurt  them.  But  when  this  is  severe  the  sheep 
should  be  housed,  dosed  with  castor  oil,  and  fed  with  some 
crusts  of  wheat  bread. 

The  fly  or  maggot,  is  an  insect  which  breeds  in  the  skin 
of  sheep.  If  the  animal  is  a  tacked  before  shearing  it  be- 
comes sickly  and  indisposed  ;  its  wool  not  yielding  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  yolk,offers  a  warm  nest  for  the  reception  of  the 
eggs,  which  are  speedily  hatched.  The  maggots  immediate- 
ly feed  on  the  flesh  of  the  sheep;  and  if  they  be  not  timely 
destroyed,  the  vermin  will  multiply  so  rapidly  as  to  destroy 
the  animal  in  a  short  time.  The  remedy  recommended  is  cor- 
rosive sublimate  and  turpentine  rubbed  into  the  sore.  Proba- 
bly spirits  of  turpentine,  or  fine  salt,  would  be  equally  effica- 
cious. 

Mr.  Livingston,  in  the  transactions  of  the  agricultural  so- 
ciety, New-York,  observes  that  the  legs  of  sheep  are  furnished 
with  a  duet,  terminating  in  the  fissure  of  the  hoof;  from  v.hich 
when  the  animal  is  in  health  there  is  secreted  a  white  fluid, 
but  when  sickly  the  duets  are  stopped  by  the  hardening  of  the 
fluid ;  and  that  he  has  in  some  instances  found  the  sheep  re- 
lieved, merely  by  pressing  out  the  hardened  matter  with  the 
finger  from  the  orifice  of  the  duct  in  each  foot,  and  thinks  that 
it  may  in  some  cases  be  proper  to  place  their  feet  in  w'arm  wa- 
ter, or  to  use  a  probe  or  hard  brusii  for  cleansing  this  pas- 
sage." 

A  writer  in  the  Massachusetts  Agricultural  Journal,  vol.  3, 
p.  351,  observes  that  "the  dysentaiy  or  flux  in  sheep  has  been 
c  ured  by  rubbing  with  a  co^  between  the  sheep's  hoofs." 

Worms  tn  the  head  of  sheep. — The  syratoms  of  this 
complaint  are  seen  in  the  animals  lopping  their  ears,  shaking 
their  heads,  scouring,  stupidity,  loss  of  appetite.  These  gen- 
erally ter  minate  in  consumption  and  death. 

Remedy . — Force  vineger,  by  a  syringe  into  the  head  of  the 
sheep.  This  will  produce  sneezing,  and  convulsions  in  the' 
sheep,  by  which  the  worms  will  be  discharged." 


SWINE.  IGU 

These  are  tlie  principal  diseases  to  whiclfi  sheep  have  been 
subjected.  Others  may  hereafter  be  discovered  peculiar  to 
our  climate,  and  the  condition  of  this  animal,  and  the  man- 
agement of  the  shepherd.  There  has  been  much  diversity  of 
opinion  respecting  the  best  covering  provided  for  the  shelter- 
ing of  sheep  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  season.  That  which 
seems  to  be  most  generally  approved  is  a  shed  open  to  the 
south  when  circumstances  will  admit ;  the  extent  of  it  to  be 
apportioned  to  the  number  of  sheep  intended  to  occupy  it.  It 
should  be  so  large  on  the  ground,  that  they  are  not  crowded 
when  collected  under  it,  nor  exposed  to  very  driving  storms,  of 
either  rain  or  snow,  but  should  be  left  to  act  from  the  impulse 
of  their  own  inclination,  as  the  proper  time  to  repair  to  the  shelter 
provided.  Whenever  it  is  practicable,  it  is  believed  by  many, 
to  provide  light  moveable  coverings  to  be  placed  in  the  pas- 
ture during  the  summer  season.  For  feeding  them,  small  nar- 
row troughs  should  be  provided  for  their  esculent  food  and 
salt,  and  small  racks  for  hay  or  other  dry  firbous  food. 


Rearing  and  Management  of  Swine, 


The  best  means  of  rendering    the  raising  of  this    use- 
ful animal  most  profitable,  are  not  equally   m   the.  power   of 
1  those  who  would  use  them.     The  proprietor  who  improves  on- 
ly a  garden,  or  a  very  small  tract  of  land,  must  depend  on  the 
j  economy  of  his   domestics,   and  his   industry,  for  the  supply 
I  of  such  vegetables  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  growing  and 
'  fattening  them  :  and  the  exegencies  of  his  conditition  will  gen- 
erally lead  hini  to  the  discovery  of  the  most  profitable  means 
of  obtaining  this  object.    The  little  savings  from  the  gleanings 
of  the  table,  sour  milk,  and  weeds  from  the  garden,  must  gener- 
ally constitute  the  principal  food  for  raising  one  or  two  hogs  to 
I  a  suitable  size  for  fattenmg,  among  the  poorer  class  of  citizens. 
But  it  is  generally  found  that  this   class   make  as     wise   a 
use  of  the  means  in  their  power  as  those  who  are  enabled  to 
i  carry  on  the  business  of  raising  and  fattening  swine,  upon  a  more 


170  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

extensive  scale  *  But  to'the  occupants  of  land,  of  every  descrip- 
tion, whether  they  keep  but  one  or  more  hogs,  it  is  of  impor- 
tance that  they  should  have  such  as  will  give  the  greatest  weight 
from  any  given  quantity  of  food.  It  is  a  very  favorable  circum- 
stance in  this  branch  of  rural  economy,  that  the  long  legged, 
lon^  i.ose.l,  and  long  guant  bodied  hogs  are  nearly  extinct  in 
every  part  o'*  the  country  ;  and  that  the  grass  breed,  and  a 
Tp.ixV.ire  of  r^fc  grass  bre'ed  with  the  Chinese,  generally  occu- 
py '.heir  placeg.  There  are  sdme  others  possessing  similar 
properties,  anj  known  by  the  names  of  those  persons  who  have 
mVconvzed  then),  into  different  parts  of  the  country. 

Ti'fey  are  distL.v-u.ished  in  their  general  texture  by  a'moderate 

.gth  in  Dropoition  to  thesi?e  of  the  body;  the  head  and 
^ueek  plum^'  anj  full,  neck  thick  and  short,  quarters  full,  car- 
case thick  and  full,  hair  fine  and  thin.  These  are  marks  of  a 
good  ho^;  ^nd  the  iariner  who  would  improve  the  breed  shouid 
not  rest  satisfied,  until  hy  crossing  the  Guinea  breed,  the 
Chinese  anj  30iae  cth«r  of  a  siriiiiar  breed,  with  our  old  com- 
mon breed,  they  have  oiituined  hogs  of  the  above  description. 

George  G.  Banet,  Esq.  when  American  consul,  at  Malaga, 
Spr.in,  some  years  ./r.ce,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Albany 
Coiaity  Agricultural  Society,  advised  to  introduce  from  Spain, 
a  breed  of  hogs,  which  he  observes  are  seen  in  droves  of  hun- 
dreds all  over  Spain,  and  that  they  subsist  in  summer  on 
weeds,  and  with  a  little  corn  in  autumn,  become  astonishing- 
ly fat,  and  make  the  most  delicious  pork  in  the  world. 

To  improve  our  breed  of  hogs,  it  has  been  remarked  that 
'Hhe  sow  will  bring  forth  a  stronger  and  better  litter  if  she  be 
kept  till  she  is  a  year  old  before  she  goes  to  the  boar,  and  he 
Bhoold  be  kept  till  that  age,  before  he  is  put  to  sows.  He 
should  be  kept  in  good  condition  for  the  purpose,  and  as  the 
author  of  the  Complete  Grazier  observes,  should  not  serve 
more  than  ten  sows  in  a  year.  The  sows  should  also  be  kept 
in  good  condition,  but  not  too  fat ;  as  in  that  case  they  will 
not  produce  an  abundant  litter  of  pigs.  To  cause  them  to  go 
to  the  boar  if  they  miss  the  right  season,  give  them  says  he, 
some  prr.^hed  outs  in  their  wash,  or  the  small  end  of  a  runnet 
bag.  If,  however,  they  are  well  kept,  they  will  seldom  require 
any  stimulus  to  colition  at  the  proper  time. 

Those  are  reckoned  the  best  breeders  that  have  about  ten  or 
twelve  paps.      They  should  be   kept  clean  and  well  littej-ed^ 

*  See  the  cottager's  account,  Shropshire,  England. 


SWI^E. 


m 


bu  should  not  have  too  much  litter  at  the  time  of  farrowing, 
least  they  over-lay  their  pigs  in  it."  As  sows  will  sometimes 
eat  their  own  offspring,  it  is  said  that  supplying  them  with 
plenty  of  water  at  this  time  will  prevent  this  mischief.  Pigs 
for  market  should  be  killed  at  about  the  end  of  four  weeks. 
The  castration  and  spaying  the  rest  may  as  well  be  perform- 
ed at  about  the  age  of  six  weeks.  When  milk  or  whey 
cannot  be  had,  a  thin  drink  of  pea,  buckwheat,  or  Indian 
meal  may  be  given  them.  After  the  age  of  three  months 
they  may  be  turned  out  with  the  larger  hogs  into  the  clover 
field,  which  will  keep  them  well,  during  the  rest  of  the  growing^ 
season.  Mr.  Young  says,  pigs  should  be  w^eaned  at  the  age  of 
eight  weeks. 

The  great  objection  to  making  the  raising  hogs  for  market 
an  object  of  agricultural  pursuits,  has  been  the  great  expense 
of  labor  in  raising  grain  for  fattening  them.  This  objection 
will  be  greatly  obviated  by  introducing  the  grass  breed. 
Those  who  have  land  plenty,  and  w^ould  keep  any  considerable 
number  of  hogs,  no  doubt  may  save  a  great  portion  of  the  ex- 
pense by  keeping  them  through  the  summer,  in  the  method 
which  has  heretofore  been  practiced  of  giving  them  more  or 
less  grain  through  the  year,  with  the  wash  of  the  house  and 
milk  of  the  dairy.  Those  who  go  largely  into  the  raising  of 
swine  inGreat  Britain,  and  some  parts  of  our  own  coiTiitry.appro- 
priate  certain  fields  enclosed  for  the  purpose,  and  well  stocked 
with  white  clover,  and  other  good  grass,  which  constituted 
their  principal  food  through  the  summer,  and  until  they  aro 
shut  up  for  fattening.  The  celebrated  Mr.  Young  prefers! 
soiling  them  in  a  yard  for  the  purpose  ;  and  in  this  case  he 
makes  use  of  lucern,  richory  clover,  tares,  and  other  green 
food,  cut  and  carried  in  for  feeding  them.  The  water  crow- 
foot, rununculus  aquatilis,  ia  also  highly  recommended  for 
this  purpose.  But  it  is  observed  by  the  author  of  the  Farmer's 
Assistant,  that  this  method,  though  it  may  save  some  ground 
in  pasture,  and  may  be  the  means  of  making  considerable  ma- 
nure, does  not  seem  so  apparently  beneficial  as  the  practice  of 
soiling  some  othei  animals.  Mr.  Young  mentions  his  having 
fed  sixty -four  hogs,  great  and  small,  on  two  acres  of  clover  a- 
lone,  during  one  season,  and  that  they  all  grew  very  well. 

The  pasture  in  which  they  are  kept  should  have  a  supply  of 
water. 

It  is  well  remarked  in  the  New-England  Farmer  "that  the 
pasturing  with  swine  will  enrich  land  more  than  pasturing  with 


Ti''2 


AGRieiTLTURAL  ESSAYS. 


other  beasts  :  and  hereby  the  profit  of  the  farmer  will  be  in- 
creased. And  if  a  common  clover  lay,  will  produce  a  good 
crop  of  wheat,  much  more  maybe  expected  of  [the  same 
kind  of  ground,  after  pasturing  swine  upon  it ;  as  their  dung 
adds  much  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Hogs  may  be  turned  in- 
to their  pasture  about  the  first  of  May,  and  kept  in  it  till  the 
last  of  October ;  and  if  the  grass  should  not  be  quite  sufficient 
for  their  support,  some  potatoes  or  other  ragtsmay  be  thrown 
'Cp  them. 

When  it  can  with  convenience  be  done,  it  is  an  excellent 
piece  of  husbandry  to  make  a  hog  pasture  of  an  orchard ;  their 
dung  is  allowed  to  be  the  very  best  of  manure  for  the  trees. 
They  will  keep  the  ground  light  and  loose,  destroy  insects  that 
infect  tlie  trees,*  and  feed  heartily  on  the  premature  apples 
that  fall,  which  ihe  farmer  is  too  often  tempted  to  grind  up  for 
cider.  An  orchard  may  be  prepared  with  clover,  as  we 
as  any  other  spot  of'ground."  If  the  trees  are  young  ai>d 
amall,  they  should  be  secured  by  stakes  drove  in  the  ground 
around  them,  to  prevent  their  being  wounded  by  stripping  off 
the  bark.  The  loss  v^'liich  the  farming  interest  sustains  by 
suffering  hogs  to  run  at  large  in  the  highways,  is  so  obvious 
that  no  good  husbandman  should  suffer  it  in  those  districts 
Vv'here  by  law  they  are  commonable.  It  is  observed  by  Mr. 
Deane,  that  to  prepare  a  pasture  for  hogs  "the  ground  should 
be  broken  up,  tilled  and  manured,  and  then  laid  dawn  with  clo- 
ver ;  for  swine  are  more  fond  of  this  grass  than  of  any  other 
which  our  country  produces.  Let  the  quantity  of  land  be  so 
proportioned  to  the  number  of  swine,  that  they  may  keep  the 
grass  from  running  up  to  seed ;  for  this  will  prevent  waste  ; 
and  the  shorter  the  grass  is  the  sweeter  it  will  be,  and  the 
more  tender  and  agreeable  to  their  palates.  The  same  author 
supposes  that  one  acre  of  rich  land  in  clover  will  support  twen- 
ty or  more  swine,  large  and  small  together,  through  the  sum- 
mer, and  bring  them  well  forward  in  their  growth,"  and  that  "it 
has  been  proved,  by  many  trials,  that  hogs  in  such  a  pasture 
m 'V  be  kept  in  good  plight,  without  any  other  food." 

While  they  are  young  let  the  top  of  the  gristle  of  the  nose 
be  paired  off  with  a  sharp  knife,  which  will  ever  afterwards 
prevent  their  roocing  up  the  sward,  and  answers  the  same  pur- 
pose as  ringing. 

It  has  been  uniformly  remarked,  that,  although  these  animals 

*'S^e  an  account  of  the  Curicules  in  essav  on  insects. 


SWINE.  173 

&te  naturally  filthy  if  left  to  themselves,  yet  the  cleaner  they 
are  kept,  the  better  they  will  grow  and  fatten. 

To  those  who  would  raise  hogs  without  that  tillage  which 
may  be  necessary  to  raise  a  suitable  quantity  of  grain  for  that 
purpose,  it  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  some  farmers,  both  in 
GreatBritain  and  America^have  practiced  keeping  them  through 
the  "'inter  on  boiled  or  steamed  clover;  hay.  In  that  case  the 
clover  should  be  cut  a  little  sooner  than  usual,  and  should  be 
well  cured,  and  have  about  a  peck  of  salt  to  each  ton,  when 
laid  down  in  the  mow.  For  boiling  in  this  case,  as  well  ^s  for 
boiling  roots,  and  for  other  purposes,  a  wooden  vessel  full  of 
holes  at  the  bottom,  is  placed  over  the  boiler  which  holds  the 
water  and  which  is  heated  underneath ;  being  set  in  a  brick 
stove,  or  furnice  for  the  purpose.  The  steam  from  the  boiler  runs 
through  the  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  which  holds  the 
articles  to  be  boiled  or  steamed,  and  after  passing  through 
them,  is  let  off  at  the  top  ;  not  faster  however  than  is  necessary, 
being  partly  confined  with  a  lid.  If  the  hay  or  other  article? 
are  to  be  boiled  in  water,  the  steam  is  conducted  by  a  tube  into 
the  bottom  of  a  vessel  holding  the  water,  into  which  articles  are. 
to  be  put. 

^The  steam  boiler  is  a  necessary  article  in  rearing  swine,  and 
for  other  purposes  which  every  farmer  should  possess,if  consis- 
tent with  his  condition. 

In  some  parts  of  our  country,  great  account  is  made  of  boiling 
potatoes,  ana  cariots,  and  other  roots,  as  winter  food  for  swinej 
andin  the  more  southern  parts  of  the  United  States^  where  it 
is  less  difficult  to  preserve  roots  from  the  frost,  the  same 
measure  would  no  doubt  be  equally  profitable  and  practicable. 
But  our  common  farmers,  in  the  more  northern  cli- 
mate, will  ?  probably,  in  their  present  condition,  think  it  expe- 
dient to  rely  more  on  hard  food,  such  as  corn,  peas,  oats,  &c., 
because  they  are  attended  with  much  less  expense  in  preserving 
and  feeding;  these  however,  will  prove  much  more  efficacious? 
tvhen  ground  and  boiled,  or  steamed. 

It  is  observed  by  the  author  of  the  Complete  Grazier,  that 
when  many  hogs  are  put  up  together  to  fatten,  they  will  fall 
a^ay  at  first,  if  ever  bo  well  fed ;  which  he  attributes  to  the 
noise  and  confusion  produced  among  them  by  this  new 
state  of  keeping ;  he  observes  too,  that  in  such  ca^s  it  is  not  un- 
frequent  for  one  of  the  family  to  become  so  much  the  object  of 
hatred  to  the  rest,  as  eventually  to  be  killed  by  them;  and  from 
all  this  he  infers  that  it  is  much  better  to  have  them  in  a  number 

p  2 


I'?4  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAtS. 

of  small  companies  detached  from  each  other,  so  that  th6 
noise  and  bustle  will  be  less,  and  in  order  that  they  may  mor0 
unmolested  enjoy  the  repose  which  is  most  suitable  to  their 
drowsy  faculties.  For  this  purpose  the  sty  should  have  a 
number  of  distinct  apartments  by  close  partitions  from  each 
other,  and  where  the  inmates  of  each  can  come  forward  separ- 
ately to  the  general  feeding  trough,  and  retire  separately  again 
to  rest. 

To  increase  the  appetite  of  hogs,  when  fattenmg,  it  is  said 
a  dose  or  two  of  sulphur  should  be  occasionally  given  them  in 
their  food.  Change  of  food  is  also  good  for  that  purpose. 
Laxative  food  should  be  avoided,  as  they  are  seldom  costive. 
If  they  are  too  much  so,  a  little  rye  will  generally  prove  effica- 
cious, as  a  remedy.  Mr.  Young  says  it  has  been  found  that  the 
best  method  of  feeding  all  kinds  of  grain  to  hogs,  is  ;to  grind  it 
to  meal  and  mix  it  with  water,  in  cisterns  made  for  the  purpose, 
m  the  proportion  of  five  bushels  of  meal,  to  a  hundred  gallons 
of  water;  the  mass  to  be  well  stirred  several  times  each  day, 
until  it  has  fermented  and  become  acid,  when  it  will  be  ready 
for  use.  In  this  way  two  or  three  cisterns  must  be  kept  fer- 
menting in  succession.  He  further  remarks,  that  the  profits 
will  amply  pay  the  expence.  Is  not  the  correctness  of  this  re- 
mark,  as  it  relates  to  the  condition  of  the  farmers  in  our  own 
country,  evinced  from  the  riutritiows  effect  which  the  grains  of 
distillers,  and  the  refuse  of  etarch  factories,  has  in  fattening 
hog's.  Were  the  nutrative  substances  contained  in  these-arti- 
cies  of  food  separated  entirely  from  the  water  with  which  'they 
are  mixed,  and  in  that  condition  fed  to  swine,  we  should 
doubtless  find  a  great  diminution  of  their  efficacy.  It  has 
been  observed  that  the  cause  of  pork,  as  well  as  ather  meats 
shrinking  very  much,  and  losing  much  of  its  oils  in  cooking, 
seems  not  to  be  well  understood ;  ibut  that  it  is  general- 
ly believed  the  more  fully  any  animal  is  fatted,  the  leas  will  its 
saeat  shrink  and  part  with  its  oil  in  cooking. 

DISEASES.  Measles.— This  disorder  is  mostly  in  the 
throat,  which  is  filled  with  small  pustules,  and  sometimes  these 
appear  on  the  outside  of  the  neck.  The  animal  affected  looks 
languied,  with  red  eyes,  and  loses  flesh.  Remedy.— Gi\e  him 
«naall  quantities  of  levigated  crude  antimony  in  his  food. 

The  mange  is  like  the  scab  in  sheep,  a  cutaneous  erup- 
,t;ion  of  the  skin,  is  occasioned  by  want  of  cleanliness  in  the 


hogstye.  It  is  known  by  the  violent  rubbing  of  the  animal 
till  he  tears  the  pustules,  and  thus  produces  scabs.  Remedy. 
—First  wash  th^  animal  with  strong  soap  suds,  then  an- 
oint him  with  an  ointment  formed  of  an  ounce  of  the  flow- 
er of  sulphur,  two  drachms  of  fresh  pulverized  hellibore, 
three  ounces  of  hogs  lard,  and  half  an  ounce  of  the  wa- 
ter of  hali.  This  is  to  be  rubbed  in  at  one  time,  and  is  suth- 
cient  for  a  hog  weighing  one  hundred.  This  will  be  sufficient- 
ly efficacious  if  the  hog  be  afterwards  kept  clean.  When  he 
has  a  slight  cough,  doses  of  antimony,  and  from  half  an  ourice 
to  an  ounce  and  a  half  is  recommended,  according  to  the  size 
of  the  animal,  to  be  mixed  with  his  food  for  ten  days  or  more. 
But  where  from  long  neglect,  the  neck,  ears  and  other  parts 
become  ulcerated,  they  should  be  anointed  every  third  or  tourth 
day  with  an  ointment  made  of  equal  parts  lard  and  mutton  suet, 
melted  together,  till  the  cure  is  completed. 

The  murrain  or  leprosy  in  swine,  is  known  by  the  short= 
ness  and  heat  of  the  breath,  hanging  dowm  of  the  head,  lag- 
gering,  and  secretion  from  the  eyes.  It  is  said  to  be  caused  by 
hot  seasons,  when  the  blood  becomes  inflamed.  Remedy, 
—Boil  a  handful  of  nettles  in  a  gallon  of  small  beer,  add  a 
half  a  pound  of  flour  of  sulphur,  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  anm- 
seeds,  pulverized,  three  ounces  of  liquorice,  and  a  quarter  oi  & 
pound  of  elecampane,  and  give  this  mixture  in  milk  at  six 
doses. 

The  garg£t  is  an  inflamation  of  the  uddef,  by  being  filled 
with  coagulated  milk.  It  is  said  chiefly  to  happen  when  sows 
are  too  fat  at  littering ;  and  when  they  are  thus  afiected  the 
pigs  will  not  suck.  In  slight  cases  the  udder  may  be  bathed  with 
camphorated  wine  ;  but  the  miik  mtist  be  squeezed  out  by 
hand  if  possible.  If  relief  cannot  thus  be  given,  it  is  best  to 
kill  the  animal. 

Dry  cough  and  wasting  of  the  flesh,  is  best  remedied  by 
a  dry,warm  sty,  with  a  regular  supply  of  food  that  is  calculated 
to  keep  them  cool,  and  to  allay  their  initation  of  the  lungs. 

Fever  or  rising  of  the  lites,  appears  to  be  caused  by 
overfeeding,  and  may  be  remedied  by  doses  of  sulphur  and  oil. 
In  reviewing  the  causes  of  diseases  in  swine,  it  will  be  seeti 
that  they  may  often  be  prevented  by  proper  care  and  manage- 
ment. 


176  agricultcrai  essays. 

Management  of  Bees. 

In  every  swarm,  or  hive  of  bees,  there  are  two  sorts,  beside 
what  is  called  the  queen  bee.  She  is  distinguished  by  being 
larger,  and  of  a  lighter  red  than  the  rest ;  and  it  is  said  by 
those  who  have  investigated  the  eGonomy  of  bees,  that  she  is 
the  leader  of  the  swarm,  and  lays  the  eggs  in  the  cells  for 
new  broods,  which  consist  of  thousands  every  year.  The 
other  kinds  are  the  drones,  which  have  no  stings,  are  the  dark- 
est colored,  and  are  supposed  to  be  the  males  ;  and  the  honey, 
or  working  bees,  which  are  much  the  most  numerous. 

The  bee-hive  ought  to  be  placed  at  a  suitable  distance  from 
places  where  cattle  are  kept,  or  where  horses  are  tied  ;  and 
from  places  where  filth  of  any  kmd  is  collected.  It  should  be 
open  to  the  south,  with  the  other  sides  close.  It  should  stand 
leaning  forward  a  little,  with  the  front  part  of  the  roof  project- 
ing over  considerably,  to  prevent  southerly  rains  from  wetting 
the  hives.  These  should  be  kept  dry,  clean,  and  warm  during 
the  winter ;  though  not  so  warm  as  to  tempt  the  bees  abroad 
in  warm  winter  days. 

The  following  method  of  managing  bees  is  recommended 
by  Mr.  Deane  :  place  three  hives  of  the  same  dimensions, 
say  ten  inches  in  height,  each,  and  fourteen  inches  in  diameter 
each  way,  are  to  be  placed  one  on  the  top  of  the  other.  The 
two  undermost  ones  are  to  have  square  holes  in  the  top,  about 
three  inches  in  diameter,  and  covered  with  a  sliding  shutter. 
Let  each  hive  also  have  a  place  of  entrance,  two  or  three  inches 
long,  and  a  third  of  an  inch  wide.  The  square  holes  in  the  two 
lowermost  are  to  be  open.  The  bees  will  fill  the  uppermost 
hive  first.  When  this  is  full,  which  can  be  ascertained  by- 
weighing  it  in  a  cool  morning,  when  the  bees  do  not  stir,  take 
it  off  and  carry  it  into  a  room,  with  a  window]open  to  the  morn- 
ing sun,  and  as  this  enlivens  the  bees,  they  will  fly  off  to  their 
accustomed  place,  and  commence  their  labors  in  storing  the 
second  hive,  which  should  then  have  the  hole  in  its  top  closed. 
When  this  is  filled,  the  same  process  is  to  be  repeated  ;  but 
when  they  have  filled  the  last  hive,  let  it  remam  for  the  winter 
stock  of  provisions  for  the  swarm.  In  taking  out  the  honey 
from  the  hive,  which  should  be  done  speedily,  let  those  bees 
which  are  found  unable  to  fly,  be  thrown  into  a  tub  of  water, 
out  of  which  they  can  crawl  again,  and  they  will  soon  recover 
their  wonted  activity,  and  go  after  their  companions.  In  this 
way  thexe  is  no  necessity  tor  the  process  of  fire  and  brimstone 


r.IANAGE-VEiNT    OF    BEES. 


177 


for  getting  rid  of  the  bee^,  a  method  unnecessarily  destructive 
to  their  race. 

Another  method  of  taking  the  honey  without  killing  the  bees, 
is,  when  the  hive  is  filled  with  honey,  in  the  night  season  turn 
it  bottom  upwards,  and  set  an  empty  hive  of  the  same  size,  with 
its  bottom  exactly  on  the  bottom  of  the  other:  let  there  be  one 
or  two  cross  pieces  within  the  empty  hive,  for  the  bees  to  light 
on :  then  take  a  stick  and  strike  gently  on  the  sides  of  the  full 
hive,  and  the  bees  will  leave  it  and  ascend  to  the  upper  one. 
When  they  have  all  got  into  this,  take  it  off  gently,  and  set  it 
where  the  full  hive  stood,  and  the  bees  will  go  to  work  again 
as  before.  This  is  said  to  be  the  method  usually  practised  in 
France. 

The  following  management  is  said  to  be  an  improvement  :— 
Have  a  hole  in  the  top  of  the  hive,  covered  with  a  shutter,  as 
before  described.  When  this  is  filled,  which  is  to  be  known 
by  the  bees  lyin^j  inactive  about  its  mouth,  open  the  hole  above, 
and  set  a  smairhive  on  the  top,  into  which  they  will  kscend, 
and  fill  it  vvith  the  purest  honey,  without  any  mixture  of  the 
bee-bread.  When  full,  take  it  off  as  before  directed,  and  place 
another  in  its  stead.  The  bees  in  the  full  hive  will  soon  fly 
off  to  the  old  one,  and  the  swarm  will  re-commence  their  la- 
bors in  fillinsr  the  empty  one  again.  When  full,  take  it  away 
as  before,  aifd  set  the  em.pty  one  iu  its  place.  These  upper 
hives  should  hold  about  seventeen  pounds  of  honey  whenfilleaj 
and  such  the  svrarm  will  usually  fill  three  times  in  a  season. 
The  honey  in  the  lower  hive  is  to  remain  for  their  winter  food. 

Either  of  the  methods  which  have  been  here  described,  may 
with  proper  attention  prove  successful.  Those  who  wish  to 
derive  profits  from  this  useful  insect,  will  soon  learn  from  ob- 
servation and  experience,  the  m.ethod  of  managing  them  v.'hich 
appears  best. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  feed,  bees  when  their  stock  is 
exhausted  ;  and  as  honey  is  the  most  natural  food  for  bees,  it 
is  to  be  conveyed  by  small  troughs  into  the  hives,  until  they 
are  able  to  provide  for  themselves.  It  is  said  that  bread  soaked 
in  strong  ale  is  also  good  to  give  them,  and  that  they  will  con- 
sume the  whole  of  it.  It  may  be  advisable,  sometimes,  to  join 
two  small  swarms  together.  To  effect  this,  the  hives  intended 
to  be  joined,  are  to  be  placed  with  their  bottoms  over  those  of 
two  empty  ones :  a  piece  of  dried  mushroom,  commonly  called 
puff-ball,  IS  set  on  fire,  is  placed  under  each  full  hive  so  thatk 
the  scioke  will  ascend  into  them,  and  when  the  baes  become 


178 


agrico'ltural  essays. 


stupified,  let  the  fuU  hives  be  knocked  gently  oh  the  side^?,  aft^ 
the  bees  will  fall  into  the  empty  ones  in  a  torpid  state  ;  it  is  ex- 
pedient, then,  if  practicable,  to  find  the  qiieen  bee  of  one  of 
the  swarms,  and  kill  it.  The  two  swarms  are  then  to  be  put 
together,  mixing-  them  well,  and  dropping  them  among  the 
combs  of  the  hives  they  are  to  inhabit.  The  door  of  the  hive 
IS  then  to  be  covered  with  a  cloth,  so  that  they  cannot  get  out 
The  second  night  after  their  union,  remove  the  cloth  in  the 
dusk  of  the  evening,  and  the  bees  will  sally  forth  ;  but  a?  the 
night  approaches  they  will  return.  Keep  them  confined  three 
or  four  days  longer,  letting  them  out  in  the  evening  as  before, 
and  then  the  cloth  may  be  removed. 

To  preserve  bees  from  the  worm,  or  butterfly,  which  some- 
times proves  destructive  to  them,  one  remedy  proposed,  is  to 
raise  the  hives  up  about  the  first  of  May,  and  strew  some  fine 
salt  under  the  edges,  which  will  drive  the  worms  away.  This 
has  been  tried  with  success. 

It  has  been  said,  also,  that  the  ravages  of  this  insect  may  be 
prevented  by  simply  raising  the  hive  l;wo  inches  with  blocks, 
one  under  each  corner  ;  this  v/ill  give  the  bees  an  opportunity 
to  clear  the  hive  of  this  pest,  and  other  filth,  and  also  keep  the 


When  the  sun  shines  warm  upon  the  south  side  of  the  bee- 
house,  in  the  months  of  February  and  March,  the  bees  are 
eometimes  induced  to  venture  abroad,  to  void  their  excrements 
and  get  water :  and  as  soon  as  they  come  in  contact  with  the 
cold  air,  they  fall  upon  the  snow  and  are  lost.  Hives  almost 
full  of  honey  are  sometimes  deserted  in  this  manner.  To 
avoid  this  loss,  the  door  on  the  front  of  the  hive  should  be  kept 
shut  during  the  warm  days  in  those  months. 

It  is  said  that  during  the  working  months  bees  should  be  often 
salted  with  fine  salt,  as  it  will  conduce  to  the  health  of  the  in- 
sect, and  also  improve  the  flavor  of  the  honey. 

Honey  has  medicinal  qualities,  is  a  great  luxury,  and  a  pro- 
fitable article  of  consumption.  It  is  therefore  strange  indeed, 
that  so  many  neglect  the  economy  of  keeping  bees,  when  it  is 
considered  they  support  themselves  by  their  own  industry. 
With  only  a  very  trifling  exptlise. 


INSfiCtS.  l^P 

INSECTS. 

Insects  of  some  description  are  continually  preying  upon  the 
labors  of  the  farmer,  and  in  many  instances  it  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  provide  adequate  remedies  agamst their  ravages. 
Some  account  of  those  which  are  most  injurious  to  vegetation, 
together  with  .the  best  remedies  that  have  been  discovered  to 
prevent  their  ravages,  shall  here  be  given. 

Canker  w.oRMs  are  insects  of  the  species  of  the  miller, 
which  about  eighty  year"  since,  made  their  first  appearance  in 
the  oldest  settled  parts  of  the  New-England  States,  and  were 
called  canker  worms  because  they  produced  an  eifectupon  the 
apple-trees  similar  to  that  produced  by  canker.  One  of  the 
most  effectual  methods  to  prevent  their  ascending  the  trees, 
which  the  female  does  early  in  the  spring,  to  deposit  her  eggs, 
is  that  which  is  found  equally  effectual  in  preventing  the  ascent 
of  caterpillars,  that  is,  to  fasten  a  strip  of  sheepskin,  with  the 
wool  outwards,  round  the  body  of  the  tree.  This,  it  is  found, 
is  a  barrier  they  cannot  pass,  as  in  attempting  to  climb  over  the 
wool  they  lose  their  hold,  and  fall  down.  Another  method  is, 
"to  fasten  a  piece  of  oiled  paper  about  the  tree,  with  the  lower 
edge  projecting  out  an  inch  or  more,  and  standing  downwards, 
which  edge  they  cannot  pass.  These  strips  must  be  closely  fit- 
ted round  the  tree  to  prevent  their  passage  between  them  and 
the  body.  The  scraping  off  the  shaggy  parts  of  the  bark  is  al- 
so recommended,  in  order  to  deprive  them  of  places  of  safety 
from  birds,  and  of  shelter  from  storms.  Mr.  Forsyth  also  r©- 
cornmends,  that  the  bodies  and  large  limbs  of  the  trees  be 
whitewashed  with  lime  and  w^ater,  or  with  a  mixture  of  old 
urine  and  soapsuds  for  keeping  off  all  insects. 

Caterpillars.  The  above  directions  it  is  saidi  are  al?o 
-equally  applicable  to  these  insects. 

When  a  nest  of  them  are  formed,  run  a  pole  into  it,  twist  it 
round  till  the  nest  and  its  contents  are  wrapped  round  the  pole 
and  bring  the  whole  down  and  kill  the  worms.  Let  this  be 
done  m  the  morning,  when  the  worms  are  all  in  the  nest.  If 
any  escape  this  operation,  repeatjit  when  they  have  rebuilt  the 
nest.  This  remedy  is  thought  to  be  more  efiicacioua  when  ap- 
plied m  a  shower  of  rain.  When  the  nests  have  been  suffered 
to  remain  till  the  insects  have  left  them,  young  broods  for  ♦he 
ensuing  year,  will  ftie  next  spring  be  found  on  the  trees,  in  the 


180  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

chrysalis  state,  under  the  shelter  of  a  dry  curled  leaf  or  two, 
bound  with  filaments  like  cobwebs  ;  these  should  be  searched 
for  and  destroyed.  It  is  said  that  caterpillars  will  take  shelter 
under  woolen  rags,  Avhen  put  on  trees  where  they  resort,  from 
which  they  can  easily  be  taken  and  destroyed. 

Grubs  are  large  maggots,  produced  from  the  eggs  of  a  cer- 
tain species  of  the  butterfly,  very  injurious  to  corn  by  eating 
its  roots.  They  are  said  to  produce  the  beetle.  Frequent 
ploughings  will  nearly  destroy  them. 

Top,  or  spindle  worms,  are  white  worms,  resembling 
grubs,  found  in  the  central  hole  which  is  formed  by  the  leaves 
of  Indian  corn  ;  and  they  there  cut  off  the  stem  which  forms 
the  top  of  the  plant.  They  are  mostly  to  be  found  near  barn- 
yards, and  in  rich  spots.  They  are  discovered  by  their  excre- 
ment appearing  on  the  leaves.  Sprinkling  the  corn  with  a 
weak  ley  ;"of  wood  ashes  will  extirpate  them. 

Black  worms,  called  also  the  cut  worm.  Ash  colored 
worms,  with  black  stripes  on  their  backs.  When  full  grown 
they  are  of  the  thickness  of  a  goose-quill,  and  about  an  inch 
and  a  quarter  long.  They  hide  in  the  soil  by  day  and  commit 
their  depredations  by  night.  They  eat  off  young  plants  above 
ground,  and  frequently  endeavor  to  draw  them  under.  It  is 
said  that  manuring  the  ground  with  salt  will  drive  them  from 
it  and  that  lime  and  ashes  will  also  have  neraly  a  similar  effect. 

Red  worms.  These  are  slender,  about  an  inch  long,  with 
a  hard  coat,  and  pointed  head.  They  eat  off  wheat,  barley  and 
oats,  above  the  crown  of  the  roots ;  and  they  also  eat  through 
turnips,  potatoes,  &c.  No  remedy  known  better  than  lime 
and  soot,  and  effectual  summer  fallowings,  which  destroys 
them  by  depriving  them  of  food. 

Timber  worms.  The  smaller  kind  merely  eat  into  the  sap 
of  wood,  and  turn  it  into  powder  post,  as  it  is  commonly  called. 
Felling  timber  about  the  middle  of  winter,  the  time  it  has  the 
least  sap  in  it,  will  obviate  this  difficulty.  The  large  boring 
worm  takes  its  residence  chiefly  in  pine  timber.  They  are 
hatched  in  the  cavities  of  the  bark,  and  being  small  when  they 
enter  the  cavities  of  the  wood,  they  grow  larger  as  they  pro- 
ceed, till  their  boring  may  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance. 


INSECTS.  181 

tf  the  trees  be  scorched  with  a  light  flame,  or  washed,  (Mr. 
Deane  says  steeped,)  in  salt  water,  it  will  destroy  these  worms, 
or  prevent  their  entering  the  wood. 

The  same  author  says,  that  in  1770,  formidable  armies  of 
worms  overrun  the  county  of  Cumberland,  about  the  middle  of 
July,  and  stripped  the  vegetables  of  their  leaves,  leaving  only 
the  stems.  They  were  extremely  voracious,  moved  in  appa- 
rent haste  and  all  in  the  same  direction,  crawling  over  houses, 
&c.  unless  they  found  an  entrance.  Other  paits  of  the  eastern 
states  have  since  experienced  their  ravages. 

The  best  security  found  against  them  was  to  stop  their  course 
by  trenches,  having  their  sides  leaning  over,  out  of  which  they 
could  not  climb,  after  they  had  got  into  them. 

Hesssian  fly.  As  the  ravages  of  this  insect  are  confined 
to  wheat,  it  is  described,  together  with  the  remedy,  ia  the  es- 
say on  wheat. 

Maggots.  Injurious  to  the  roots  of  cabbages,  and  to  tur- 
nips and  radishes.  Let  the  ground  have  a  previous  manuring 
with  salt,  which  it  is  believed  will  be  effectual ;  if  not,  let  some 
brine,  about  as  strong  as  sea  water,  be  sprinkled  once  only  a- 
bout  the  plants,  for  if  repeated  it  will  probably  be  found  hurtful 
to  them.  Or,  perhaps,  a  better  way  is  to  apply  a  weak  brine 
more  than  once,  and  that  just  after  a  rain. 

Yellow  striped  b^g.  This  insect  commits  its  ravages  on 
the  young  plants  of  cucumbers,  squashes,  melons,  pumpkins, 
&c.  while  in  the  seed  leaf. 

Water,  made  bitter  by  bruising  tansy  in  it,  and  sprinkled  o- 
ver  the  plants,  will  keep  off  this  insect;  but  this  must  be  fre- 
quently repeated,  particularly  after  rains.  Green  eider  leaves 
are  also  very  useful,  either  laid  near  the  plants,  or  steeped  in 
water  and  sprinkled  on  the  plants.  Soot,  also,  is  very  good, 
sprinkled  on  the  plants  while  the  dew  is  on,  but  must  be  repeat- 
ed after  every  rain.  Gypsum  and  ashes  are  also  good  for  this 
purpose,  sprinkled  over  the  plants  when  the  dew  is  on.  Most, 
er  all  of  these  applications,  to  become  efficacious  must  be  re- 
peated, with  persevering  diligence. 

Turnip  fly.  This  eats  the  seed  of  the  leaves  of  the  young 
turnip  plants,  and  thus  destroys  them.  One  remedy  is,  to  sow 
the  grouad  thiekly,  partly  with  old  and  partly  with  new  seed, 


i^  AeRICULTURAL   ES3AT3, 

which  will  come  up  at  different  times,  and  thus  a  part  of  the  oi;fi 
or  of  the  other  will  stand  a  chance  of  escaping.  Gypsum  soot 
and  tansy  water,  applied  as  mentioned  before  is  good.  Elder 
leaves,  frequently  dragged  over  the  ground  after  the  plants  are 
up,  IS  also  efficacious.  Smokes,  made  to  the  windward  side, 
will  help  to  keep  off  this  insect.  Rolling  the  ground  after  sow- 
ing, IS  also  recommended,  where  the  ground  is  smooth  :  the 
benefit  derived  from  this,  consists  in  compressing  the  surface 
ot  the  ground  so  as  to  afford  fewer  hiding  places  in  it  for  these 
insects.  It  IS  said  ducks,  in  a  turnip  Seld,  will-  destroy  the  in- 
sects without  mjuring  the  young  plants. 

Garden  flea.  Destructive  to  young  cabbage  plants  while 
m  the  seed  leaf. 

i?eme(fy.— Elder  leaves,  gypsum,  soot  and  tansy  water,  as 
mentioned  above.    Soap  suds  is  also  good  to  be  sprinkled  over 

Lice,  These  infest  cabbages,  &e.  They  may  be  extirpate 
ed  by  smoke,  particularly  of  tobacco.  They  sometimes,  how^ 
ever,  appear  so  late  in  the  season  that  the  frosts  destroy  them-, 
beiore  they  do  much  injury. 

Weavel.  a  little  black  bug,  very  destructive  to  wheat,, 
either  in  barns  or  granaries.  On  thrusting  your  hand  into  a 
bm  of  wheat  infested  with  them,  considerable  warmth  will  be 
felt ;  but  as  they  are  usually  collected  together,  every  part  of 
the  heap  or  bin  should  be  examined 

It  is  said  they  may  be  destroyed  in  a  close  apartment,  by  fu- 
migating It  with  burnt  sulphur,  for  about  twelve  hours.  Anoth- 
BT  Remedy.  Mr  L'Hommedieu,  having  found  his  bin  of  wheat 
tull  of  weavel,  he  emptied  the  bin,  white-washed  the  inside, 
and  then  returned  the  wheat  into  it,  sprinkling  a  handful  of  fine 
unslacked  hme  over  every  four  or  five  bushels,  thus  returned, 
and  five  or  six  handfuls  was  sprinkled  over  the  whole.  In  ten 
or  twelve  days  the  weavel  disappeared.  When  the  wheat  wa& 
used,  he  winnowed  it,  which  took  out  the  lime. 

Weavel  may  be  sifted  out  of  wheat  by  a  sieve,  wl  ich  will  let 
them  pass  through,  and  retain  the  wheat. 

Grasshoppers.  Great  numbers  of  these  are  generated  in- 
upland  mowing  grounds.  They  are  not  so  troublesome  in  up- 
land pastures,  for  the  reason,  probably,  that  the  feet  of  the  cat- 


IlfSECtS.  -*^^ 


^e  destroy  many  of  them  before  they  are  ^^.^^?^t  forth.  The 
only  remedy  known  is  said  t^  be  the  keeping  large  flocks  of 
turkeys  and  other  poultry  to  feed  on  them  ;  this  is  not,  howev- 
•er,  extensively  efficacious,  only  when  grass  is  appropriated  te 
pasture. 

CuRCULio.    A  genus  of  insects  belonging  to  the  beetle  ordet. 
>rhe  species  are  slid  to  be  very  numerous.    The  immense  dam- 
Tge  dJne  by  an  insect  of  this  Ue  to  the  fniits  of  this  country 
of  which  there  is  no  similar  account  m  Europe,  has  induced 
Bome  naturalists  to  coirjecture,  tliat  we  have  a  pecu  lar  and  ve- 
Tdestructive  species  in  America.     This  insect  injures  and 
Zstrovsourfri^tsbyits  mode  of  propogation.  ^f^^yi^J^^ 
spring,  about  the  time  when  the  fruit  trees  are  in  blossom,  the 
curcul  ones  ascend  in  swarms  from  the  earth,  "awl  up  the 
frees  and  as  the  several  fruits  advance,  they  puncture  the  rind, 
or  skin,  with  their  pointed  rostra,  and  deposit  their  embryos  m 
the  wound  thus  inflicted.     The  maggot  thus  bedded  m  the  fruity 
preys  upon  its  pulp  and  juices,  until,  m  most  instances,  the  fruit 
Irishes,  falls  to  the  ground,  and  the  msect  escaping  from  so 
unsafe  a  residence,  retreats  into  the  earth:    wb»re,  hke  other 
beetles,  it  remains  in  the  form  of  a  grub,  or  worm    during  the 
winter,  ready  to  be  metamorphosed  into  a  bug,  or  beetle,  as  the 
^n-n^r  advances.     Dr.  Tilton  say-s,  ^at  although  theeeijuge 
have  manifestly  the  capacity  of  flying  they  appear  very  reluc- 
tant in  the  use  of  their  wings,  and  perhaps  never  employ  them, 
except  when  necessity  compels  th^  to  migrate.     Hence  au- 
thorities difi-er  on  the  subject  of  the  best  remedies.     Some  who 
suppose  they  crawl  up  on  the  bodies,  would  tie  a  ^^pe  dipt  in 
tar,  or  make  some  other  application  to  the  bodies  which  would 
prevent  their  crawling  up.     But  Dr.  Deane,  who  thmks  they 
Le  their  wings  to  ascend  the  tree,  believes,  with  many  others, 
that  they  must  be  prevented  from  coming  out  of  the  ground  or 
destroyed  in  the  maggot  before  they  enter  it.     It  is  said  that 
tanner's  spent  bark  spread  around  the  tree  will  pre-^ent  them. 
As  the  smooth  stone  fruits  are.the  grand. nurseries  of  the  cur- 
•  culio,  special  care  should  be -taken  to  have  the^e  effectu^ly 
protected.      Unless  this  can  be  done,  a  farmer  siiould  not  suher 
them  to  grow  on  his  plantation,  as  they  will  furnvsh  a  destruc- 
tive vermin  that  will  ruin  his  other  fruite.     €herry-trees,  nec- 
tarines, plums,  apricots,  &c.  should  therefore  be  Planted  in 
lanes  and  hard  beaten  yards,  the  common  higliwaysot  all  the 
,£tock  ofthe  farm,  and  not.beyondtjie  range  of  the  ordinary  do^- 


}84 

AGRieULTURAL    ESSAYSi 


maggots  as  crawl  from  the  fallen  fnJte  ''  '^'"''"" 

tha  'tb^hU^h'T^  ^'°'"  the  history  of  this  destructive  insect 

great  abui^daLe  e^ce^onTpp    "and  oal  Zlef'^'^yT'"'"' 
S'ny'Zl'VtifrZgesTve'r /T  ^''".^  '"  ^"--^- 

reS^hrsSi^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

sward,  or  ffrassv  lan^    f^^        D^ades.     Whenever,  therefore,    . 


INSECTS.  185 

subterraneous  feeders,  as  you  have  destroyed  their  natural 
stores,  must  now  feed  upon  your  plants,  or  perish.  Fall 
ploughing  will  do  much  towards  lessening  their  numbers  ;  but 
in  some  instances  enough  will  escape  to  injure  materially  the 
sprouts  of  Indian  corn,  and  many  other  plants  in  your  garden; 
they  seldom  if  ever  injure  potatoes,  beets  or  carrots,  or  do 
much  damage  to  a  crop  of  oats.  It  has  been  remarked  by  one 
writer,  that  whenever  you  have  reason  to  expect  these  insects 
are  in  your  flax  ground  or  garden,  sow  the  land  with  fine  salt, 
broad  cast,  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  to  the  acre.  This  will 
effectually  destroy  them,  and  as  a  manure,  will  more  than  repay 
the  cost.  This  remedy,  it  may  be  observed,  may  be  judiciously 
applied,  when  we  have  reason  to  conclude  the  egg,  or  larva, 
wiiich  produces  the  worm,  has  been  deposited,  or  the  worm  so 
produced,  actually  exists  in  the  ground  from  which  you  would 
raise  any  of  those  crops  liable  to  its  devastations.  But  the 
better  and  more  certain  remedy  is,  when  circumstances  will 
admit,  to  put  the  ground  in  such  condition  previous  to  commit- 
ting your  seed  to  it,  that  the  grass-hopper,  or  other  winged 
insect,  will  not  probably  deposit  its  egg  therein  ;  or  if  it  is  al- 
ready deposited,  to  destroy  its  vivific  principle.  The  surest 
way  to  effect  this,  is  to  plough  it  thoroughly  just  previous  to 
the  connnencement  of  the  winter  frosts.  And  then  early  in 
the  spring  plough  it  again,  and  thus  prevent  every  thing  from 
^-egetating  until  you  commit  your  seed  to  the  ground.  With 
such  management,  the  winter  frosts  will  generally  destroy  the 
worm  or  the  larva,  that  may  have  been  deposited  in  the  fall  be- 
fore ;  and  as  no  green  thing  makes  its  appearance  in  the  spring 
previous  to  the  vegetation  of  the  plant  you  wish  to  cultivate, 
the  winged  insect  will  seek  some  other  place  to  deposit  its  egg  ; 
and  before  the  worm  thus  produced  becomes  of  sufficient  mag- 
nitude and  strength  to  injure  it,  the  texture  of  the  plant  will 
probably  become  so  firm  as  to  withstand  its  attacks,  and  finally 
out-grow  its  ravages. 

An  antidote  consistent  with  the  interest  of  every  farmer,  or 
one  who  cultivates  the  earth,  against  the  ravages  of  those  in- 
sects which  commit  their  depredations  principally  upon  plants 
when  in  the  first  stages  of  their  growth,  is,  to  so  fertilize  the 
soil  and  prepare  it  for  the  reception  of  the  seed,  that  it  may 
vegetate  rapidly  and  vigorously,  that  it  may  thereby  the 
sooner  acquire  that  strength  and  solidity  which  tends  to  forti- 
fy it,  in  some  measure,  against  their  attacks.  Common  ©bserv- 
ation  will  teach  us  that  the  more  feeble  and  unhealthy  the  plant 
q  2 


186  ^CfRICULTURAX   ESSAYS. 

when  it  first  emerges  from  the  surface,  the  more  it  will  be  exr 
posed  to  the  injurious  effects  of  every  species  of  insect  to  which 
it  ma^  be  subjected. 


Practicability   of  Fertilizing  the  Barren  Pine  Plajf 
Land. 

There  are  vast  tracts  of  this  land  in  different  parts  of  the  U- 
idited  States,  the  propritors  of  which,  either  through  negligencs, 
or  want  of  proper  information,  suffer  to  remain  in  a  barren 
state ,  even  after  it  has  been  cleared  of  its  timber. 

The  question  probably  is,  with  many  of  them,  how  they  can 
commence  the  process  of  tillage,  so  as  to  encourage  them  with 
a  prospect  of  success  to  their  labors,  not  havmg  suitable  ma- 
nures to  enrich  it,or  the  means,  as  they  may  suppose,  of  provid- 
mg  them. 

It  is,  however,  very  certain  that  such  land  have  been  in  'ma- 
ay  instances  converted  into  fruitful  fields,  and  rendered  highly 
productive.  The  m»des  of  effecting  this  change  in  the  state  of 
these  lands,  has  been  discovered  either  by  experiment,  or 
from  the  science  of  those  principles  which  govern  the  vegeta- 
tion and  growth  of  plants. 

It  is  believed  that  this  science,  may  now  save  the  farme  th  e 
oxpence  and  time  necessary,  in  making  improvements  on  their 
lands,  by  experiment. 

The  difficulty  in  commencing  successful  operations 
on  such  lands,  appears  to  arise  from  a  supposed  imprac- 
ticability of  effecting  the  growth  of  any  green  crop,  what- 
ever, ia  the  outset,  arising  from  the  barrenness  of  the  soil. 
But  before  an  effort  is  made  to  overcome  this  obstacle,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  understand  the  nature  and  constituent  proper- 
ties of  such  soils ;  for  notwithstanding  there  may  be  a 
uniformity  in  the  complexion  of  their  surface,  it  is  certain  that 
their  constituent  ingredients  may  be  very  different.  As  to 
the  necessity  of  a  knowledge  of  these,  and  the  means  of  dis- 
covering them,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  essay  on  the  na- 
fture  and  constituent  properties  of  the  soil. 


FERTILIZING    PIKE    PLAIN    LAND".  \W 

Those  lands  of  thig  description,  which  are  so  barren  that  no 
green  plant  whatever,  is  found  on  the  surface,  may  generally, 
perhaps  always,  be  supposed  to  consist  of  pure  sand,  or  that 
which  is  nearly  pure.  Such  lands  cannot  sufficiently  retain 
moisture  unless  they  have  a  close  under  stratum,  consisting  of 
some  clay  which  may  prevent  the  necessary  moisture  fronres- 
caping-,  before  it  can  assist  in  the  g-ermination  of  plants.  If 
such  soils  are  situated  upon  a  'clayey  bottom,  which  is  within 
the  reach  of  the  plough,  it  should  be  brought  up  by  the  use  of 
that  instrument,  and  mixed  with  the  sand.  But  if  a  mixture 
of  clay  cannot  be  provided  from  such  means,  if  it  is  to  be  pro- 
cured within  a  convenient  distance,  it  should  be  carted  on. 
spread  on  the  surface,  and  pulverized  in  the  first  place,  the 
finer  the  better.*  This  is  done  most  expeditiously,  and  effec- 
tQaily  with  the  harrow,  and  the  roller.f  When  sufficiently 
pulverized  it  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  sand  by 
ploughing  and  harrowing.  When  clayey  earths  cannot  be 
procured  in  the  vicinity  of  barren  sands,  compost  manure,  such 
as  may  be  provided  from  the  foliageof  tr^es,  or  any  other  veg- 
etable substances,  in  a  state  of  decay,  which  may  generally  be 
procured  from  neighboring  forests, :[  if  from  no  other  scarce, 
carted  on  and  mixed  with  the  sand,  or  other  barren  soil.  Tare  a 
sure  remedy  against  every  defect  which  there  may  be  in  the 
soil ;  for  although  pure  vegetable  manure  alone  would  furnish 
too  much  nourishment  to  the -plant  to  render  it  productive, 
yet  as  it  may  be  supposed  to  contain  some  particles  of  every  ne- 
cessary ingredient  to  the  growth  of  a  plant  of  which  clay  is 
considered  one,  it  is  the  best  substitute  for  that  earth.  There 
may,  however,  be  instances  in  which  either  elay  or  vegetable 
substances  cannot  be  procured  without  too  much  inconven- 
ience and  expense.  In  such  cases  there  is  an  alternative  which 
has  been  tried  with  success  ;  that  is  ploughing  in  moist  weath- 

*  The  expeidency  of  mixing  clay  with  sand;  and  in  what  pro- 
portion to  constitute  a  fertile  soil,  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  the 
analysis  of  the  soil  mentioned  in  essay  en  the  nature  and  consti- 
'luent  properties  of  the  soil. 

+  See  essay  on  roller  and   lolling  land. 

:{:If  any  part  of  North  America  may  be  discovered  to  hare  bar- 
ren sanuy   tracts  of  land,   so  extensive  as  to  render  it   impractica-    , 
ble  to  procure  either  clayey  earths,  or  vegetable  substances  to  fer- 
tilize them,   they  may  not  be  ^wanted  for  the  purposes  of  tillage, 
within  ten  centuries  to  come.  ' 


188  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

er  or  when  the  dew  is  on.  Let  this  be  repeated,  the  oftener 
the  better.  This  of  itself,  has  been  found  to  have  brought  into 
operation  the  vegetable  principle.* 

Gypsum,  it  is  believed  when  spread  on  such  lands  as  a  top- 
dressing  has  been  generally  found  efficacious  to  the  growth  of 
crops,  in  bringing  into  operation  the  vegetable  principle,  and 
often  to  become  a  substitute,  in  some  degree,  for  the  actual 
seeding  with  clover. 

In  common  seasons  some  of  the  means  above  mentioned,  it  is 
believed,  will  be  foun(J  efficacious  in  bringing  such  barren  lands 
into  a  condition  to  bear  a  green  crop. 

If  the  soil  can  be  prepared  suitably  in  the  spring  so  that  a  crop 
of  spring  or  winter  rye  might  be  early  sown,  its  fertility  would  be 
greatly  increased  by  seeding  it  with  either  of  those  kinds  of  grain, 
and  turning  it  under  with  tlie  plough  ;  say  justbefore  it  heads.  If 
some  of  the  first  green  crops  are  not  ploughed  under,  the  farmer 
must,  if  he  would  increase,  or  even  continue  the  fertility  which  he 
has  thus  effected,  be  careful  to  return  all  the  straw,  of  whatever 
nature,  which  he  carries  off,  for  the  purpose  of  manure,  and 
the  stubble  which  may  remain  after  harvest,  by  being  burnt  on 
the  land  would  add  much  to  its  fertility.  This  should  be  an 
invariable  practice  with  all  tillage  lands,  to  restore  to  them  the 
whole  amount  of  the  crop  except  the  seed.  It  would  not  be 
best  to  attempt  to  take  a  summer  crop  of  any  culmiferous  or 
legumenous  kind  as  preparatory  to  a  winter  crop,  until  the  land 
had  become  somewhat  permanently  fertilized. 

When  sandy,  plain  land  is  not  entirely  barren,  but  produc«B 
only  some  useless  vegetable :  paring  and  burning  will  produce 
fertility  ;  that  is,  paring  the  surface  to  the  deepness  of  one,  two 
or  three  inches,  gathering  it  into  heaps  and  burning  it,  and 
spreading  the  ashes  as  manure,  on  the  soil  that  remains.  This 
is  done  in  different  ways,  as  has  been  thought  expedient  by 
different  cultivators.  Perhaps  it  might  as  well  be  cut  up  with 
a  shallow  furrow  of  the  depth  intended  for  burning,  and  after 
lying  a  few  days  to  dry,  scraped  together  in  small  heaps.  This 
has  been  long  practiced  in  Great-Britain,  and  many  other  coun- 
tries ;  and  been  considered  by  many,  as  the  most,  advantagous 
way  of  bringing  in  and  improving,  not  only  pine  plain  lands, 
but  all  soils,  where  the  surface  carried  a  coarse  sward,  and  was 
,  composed  of  peat  earth,  or  other  inactive  substances  ;  being 
viewed  as  the  best  way  of  bringing  them  into  action  ;  the  ashes 

♦  Sec  essay  on  improving  land  by  plougbiag. 


FERTILIZING    PINE    PLAIN    LAND.  189 

^rnished  by  the  burning,  serving  as  a  stimulant  to  raise  up  their 
dormant  powers,  thereby  rendering  them  fertile  and  productive 
ma  superior  degree,  than  could  otherwise  be  accomplished. 

The  practice  of  paring  and  burning  such  lands  should  not  be 
resorted  to,  wJien  a  green  crop  may  be  produced  by  other  means, 
but  only  in  extreme  cases. 

It  appears  that  the  improvement  of  barren  lands  by  burning, 
was  known  to  the  Romans,  who  were  excellent  farmers.  Vir- 
gil mentions  it  in  the  iirst  book  of  the  Georgics,  and  it  is  much 
practiced  still  in  Great-Britain,  and  other  places.  "Sape  etiam 
stenles  incendore  profuit  agros."  *  It  would  seem,  however, 
that  other  barren  lands  where  sand  is  not  the  principal  constit- 
uent of  the  soil,  might  generally  be  burnt  with  more  efficacy  ; 
because  as  the  sand  itself,  it  is  said,  is  not  improved,  but  rather 
impaired  by  the  process,  it  cannot  alwavs  be  determined,  with- 
out an  experiment,  whether  the  destruction  of  the  inert  vege- 
table matter  and  the  ashes  produced  from  it,  will  compensate 
tor  the  possible  injury  it  may  be  to  the  quality  of  the  sand. 

feir  Humphrey  Davy  observes,  that  many  obscure  causes 
have  been  referred  to  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  effects  of 
paring  and  burning  ;  and  believes  they  may  be  referred  entire- 
ly  to  the  dimmution  of  the  coherence  and  tenacity  of  cl a vs,  and 
to  the  destruction  of  inert  and  useless  vegetable  matter,  and  it* 
conversion  into  a  manure.  + 

Gypsum  has  perhaps  been  used  with  as  much  success,  as  anr 
other  means,  m  first  producing  a  green  crop  of  clover,  or  sum 
mer  or  winter  rye,  on  such  soils.     But  the  great  difficulty  and 
expense  mcurred  to   obtain  this   manure,   in  many  sections  of 
our  country,  renders  the  use  of  it  impracticable 
.  It  should  be  remarked  respecting  the  barren  pine-plain  land, 
as  well  as  other  barren  soils,  that  when  once  a  green  crop  of  any 
description  has  been  first  made  to  grow  upon  them,  the  surest 
and  perhaps  least  expensive  method  of  continuing  and  increas- 
ing their  fertility,  is  to  turn  such  crop  under,  as'is  directed  fn 
the  essay  on  the  culture  of  wheat.     Such  g^een  croD  mav  bp 
that  of  buckwheat,  rye  red  clover,  and  somf  other  oTtheIrd! 
ficial  grasses,  or  perhaps  other  plants  not  valuable  for  anv 
other  purpose  but  manure.     The  efficacy   of  turning  under 
green  crops  as  a  manure,  has  been  so  u  ell  attested  both  bv 
experiment  as  well  as  by  the  principles  which  go4rn\heger^ 

!  l^  ""l'  °JJe°  profitable  also,  to  burn  barren  lands. 

f  bee  Sir  Humphrey  Davj's  Agricultural  Chemisfry,  No.  45, 


190  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 


mination  and  growth  of  vegetables,  that  any  further  remarks 
to  establish  the  fact,  would  be  useless,  and  when  other  suffi- 
cient quantities  of  efficacious  manure  cannot  be  had,  this  seems 
to  be  indispensable,  on  barren  lands  where  green  crops  can  be 
made  to  grow  ;  and  the  barrenness  of  lands  may  be  considered 
as  justifying  that  measure,  in  all  cases  where  the  lands  are  so 
far  destitute  of  fertility,  that  it  cannot  produce  any  valuable 
crop,  as  potatoes,  beans,  peas,  &c.  preparatory  to  a  wmter 

The  remarks  which  have  been  made  relative  to  the  barren 
sandy  lands,  refer  to  those  on  which  there  has  been  known  to 
have  been  a  growth  of  timber,  and  have  become  barren  by  be- 
ing left  inactive,  or  by  improper  management.  And  as  other 
tracts  of  land  may  be  reduced  to  barrenness  by  the  same  means, 
it  should  be  observed,  that  the  same  method  should  be  used  to 
preserve  their  fertility  before  they  have  become  reduced,  as  are 
necessary  to  preserve  it  after  they  have  been  restored.  The 
tracts  of  land  of  the  latter  description,  are  as  yet  probably  the 
most  extensive  in  our  country.  The  owners  of  them  should 
Iherefore  be  reminded,  that  whenever  their  productive  powers 
are  discovered  to  be  on  the  decline,  and  cannot  be  kept  m  tufl 
vitror  by  any  mode  of  tillage  which  their  circumstances  will 
otherwise  admit,  they  should  be  stocked  with  clover,  or  other 
grass  seed,  and  left  to  i=ot  tmttl  their  fertility  is  so  far  eetablisli- 
id  as  to  admit  of  another  course  of  tinage. 

Those  who  doubt  of  the  practicability  of  fertilizing  the  bar- 
ren sandy  pine-plain  lands,  on  account  of  a  supposed  barren- 
'aess  peculiar  to  the  sandy  earth,  are  referred  to  the  essay  on 
the  nature  and  constituent  properties  of  the  soil  from  which  it 
appears  that  a  much  greater  proportion  of  sand  is  admissible*^ 
if  not  an  indispensable  ingredient  in  constituting  a  fertile  soil,: 
than  any  other  of  the  original  earths  or  of  any  one  of  the  sim- 
4)le  ingredients  which  are  found  efficacious  in  fertilizing  the. 
soil.  Of  sand,  fifty-six  parts  of  a  hundred  was  found  contained^ 
in  a  soil,  as  fertile,  perhaps,  as  any  in  the  northern  States  ■        p 

The  soil  of  the  pine-plain  land,  when  first  cleared  of  the  tim- 
ber,  is  generally  covered  by  a  thick  vegetable  mould,  which, 
when  properly  combined  with  the  soil,  usually  produces  at  firs^ 
a  luxuriaMcrQp.  This  is  uniformly  winter  wheat.  It  is  thea 
planted  for  two  or  three  years  with  Indian  corn;  then  rye,  oate, 
4c.  are  taken  from  it,  until  it  becomes  completely  exhausted. 

•  See  essay  on  nature  grnd  constitueat  properties  of  soil 


FERTILIZING    PINE    PLAIN    LAND.  191 

rt  is  then  suffered  to  lay  two  or  three  years,  during  which  time 
it  has  probably  been  supposed  it  might  regain,  in  some  measure, 
its  original  strength,  so  as  to  sustain  vegetation.  But  a  differ- 
ent mode  of  culture  has  been  found  to  be  more  correct,  and 
pursued  with  success,  not  only  with  the  pine-plain  land,  but 
with  all  lands,  after  having  been  newly  cleared.  Which  is  first 
a  crop  of  winter  wheat ;  second,  Indian  corn ;  third,  barley, 
oats,  spring  wheat,  or  rye,  with  which  grass-seed  should  be 
sown,  {clover  and  timothy  may  be  preferred)  and  the  whole  cov- 
ered at  the  same  time,  either  with  the  plough  or  the  harrow. 
On  the  following  season,  the  clover  should  be  well  plastered, 
especially  if  th«  soil  is  sandy,  and  the  crop  may  be  mowed  for 
hay.  The  next  season  it  would  be  well  to  give  it  a  top  dres- 
sing with  plaster,  and  then  may  be  fed  until  the  latter  part  of 
August,  or  the  begmning  of  SeptembVr,  at  which  time  it  should 
be  turned  over  with  the  plough,  and  prepared  for  a  future  crop. 
It  is  well  ascertained,  both  from  experiment  and  the  principles 
of  vegetation,  that  only  three  successive  crops  should  be  at- 
tempted before  the  field  be  again  seeded  ;  and  then  the  same 
rotation  of  crops  may  be  pursued. 

Under  this  culture,  it  is  obvious  that  not  only  the  pine  plain 
lands,^  but  all  others,  may  not  only  be  preserved  in  their  ori- 
ginal fertility,  but  the  quality,  as  well  as  the  quantity,  of  their 
produce  be  improved  and  increased. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  those  lands  have  been  often  aban- 
doned from  an  erroneous  opinion  that  their  soil  would  not  ad- 
mit of  a  successful  cultivation ;  although  it  is  a  notorious  fact 
that  some  of  the  most  fertile  and  pleasant  townships  in  the 
northern  States  consists  of  lands  which  were  originally  of  the 
description  of  pine  plains  ;  but  from  the  industry  and  wisdom 
of  their  occupants,  have  been  rendered  fertile  and  profitable. 

*■  They  are  called  pine  plains,  from  the  forest  which  they  pro- 
duce being  composed  principally  of  pine  timber.  But  it  is  a  fact 
worthy  of  remark^  that  when  this  timber  is  cut  off,  or  destroyed  by 
fire,  it  is  usually  succeeded  by  a  luxuriant  growth  of  several  vari- 
eties of  the  oak,  combined  with  the  chesnut,  and  sometimes  hick- 
ory. 


102  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

Management  or  a  Dairy* 

To  make  a  dairy  profitable,  the  first  thing  to  be  attended  to 
is,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  milk.  These  depend  much 
on  the  nature  of  the  food  with  which  cows  are  fed,  though  the 
former  is  often  much  affected  by  the  manner  of  milking-  them. 
It  is  well,  therefore,  to  be  cautious  in  the  choice  of  milkers. 
•For,  as  has  been  w€ll  observed,  if  a  cow  be  roughly  handled,  it 
is  not  only  hurtful  to  her,  but  will  also  cause  her  to  withhold 
her  milk,  which  is  Often  attended  with  unprofitable  consequen- 
ces. Where  cows  are  skittish,  they  should  by  no  means  be 
handled  roughly.  If  the  udder  be  hard  and  painful  it  should 
be  fomented  with  luke  warm  water,  and  stroaked  gently,  by 
which  means  she  may  be  ISrought  to  a  good  temper,  and  to 
yield  her  milk  freely. 

If  the  fact  was  not  sufficiently  established  by  the  dairy  maid, 
it  has  been  by  chemical  experiments,  that  the  first  milk  which 
is  drawn  from  the  cow  is  serous,  and  that  which  succeeds  is  less 
so,  and  the  last,  or  what  are  called  strippings,  is  nearly  all 
cream. 

The  portion  of  cream  rising  first  to  the  surface  is  richer  in 
point  of  quality,  and  greater  in  quantity,  than  that  which  rises 
in  the  second  equal  space  of  time,  and  so  of  the  rest ;  the  cream 
continually  decreasing,  and  growing  worse  than  the  preceding. 

Thick  milk  produces  a  smaller  proportion  of  cream  than  that 
which  is  thinner,  though  the  cream  of  the  former  is  of  a  richer 
quality.  If  thick  milk,  therefore,  be  diluted  with  water  it  will 
aflford  more  cream  than  it  would  have  yielded  in  its  pure  state, 
though  its  quality  will  at  the  same  time  be  mferior. 

Milk  carried  about  in  pails  or  other  vessels,  agitated, 
and  partly  cooled  before  it  be  poured  into  the  milk-pans,  never 
throws  up  such  good  and  plentiful  cream  as  if  it  had  been  put 
into  proper  vessels  immediately  after  it  came  from  tlie  cow. 

From  these  fundamental  facts  it  is  observed  in  Doct.  Ander- 
son's valuable  essay,  that  many  very  important  corollaries,  serv- 
ing to  direct  the  practice,  may  be  deduced,  among  which  are 
the  following : 

1.  It  is  evidently  of  much  importance,  that  cows  should  be' 
always  milked  aa  near  the  dairy  as  possible,  to  prevent  the  ne- 
cessity of  carrying  and  cooling  the  milk  before  it  be  put  into  the 
dishes  ;  and  as  cows  are  much  hurt  by  far  driving,  it  must  be  a 

treat  advantage  in  a  dairy  farm  to  have  the  principal  grasa- 
@lds  as  near  tke  dairy  and  komestead  as  possible. 


MANAGEMENT    OF    A  DAIRT.  WS 

2.  The  mUk  drawn  from  each  Cow  separately,  should  be  put 
Into  the  creaming  pans  as  soon  as  milked,  without  being  ever 
mixed  with  any  other.  The  dairy  maid  would  thua  be  able  to 
remark  without  any  trouble,  the  quantity  of  milk  afforded  by 
each  cow  every  day,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  qualities  of  the 
cow's  milk.  By  this  means  it  would  be  easy  to  ascertain  which 
of  the  cows  it  would  be  the  owner's  interest  to  dispose  of,  and 
"which  it  would  be  best  to  keep  and  breed  from, 

3.  To  make  butter  of  the  best  quality,  it  will  be  advisable, 
not  only  to  reject  entirely  the  milk  of  ail  those  cows  which 
yield  milk  of  a  bad  quality,  but  also,  in  every  case,  to  keep  the 
milk  that  is  first  drawn  from  the  cow,  at  each  milking-,  entirely 
separate  from  that  which  is  got  last,  as  it  is  obvious,  if  this  is 
not  done,  the  quality  of  the  butter  must  be  greatly  debased, 
without  much  augmenting  its  quantity.  It  is  also  obvious,  that 
the  quality  of  the  butter  will  be  improved  in  proportion  to  the 
smallness  of  the  quantity  of  the  last  drawn  milk  which  is  used, 
as  it  increases  in  richness  to  the  very  last  drop  that  can  be 
drawn  from  the  udder  at  that  time  ;  so  that  those  who  wish  to 
be  very  particular  as  to  the  quality  of  their  butter,  will  do  well 
to  keep  a  very  small  proportion  only,  of  the  last  drawn  milk, 
for  that  purpose. 

In  that  case  too,  they  will  give  to  calves  which  are  designed 
for  rearing,  the  first  part  of  the  milk  instead  of  the  last,  as  the 
practice  of  many  farmers  has  been. 

"Butter  is  found  suspended  in  milk  in  the  form  of  a  white 
and  liquid  oil.  This  suspension  is  the  effect  of  the  saccharine 
matter  and  the  curd,  which  are  among  the  component  parts  of 
milk.  In  a  state  of  repose  and  a  cool  temperature,  this  oily 
matter  separates  itself  in  a  great  degi-ee  from  the  serum,  rises 
to  the  surface,  and  there  forms  a  pelicle  of  greater  or  less  den- 
sity. 

The  formation  of  cream  is  a  process  of  nature,  which  we 
best  promote  by  giving  to  the  dairies  a  northern  exposition  ;  by 
keeping  then:  perfectly  clean ;  because  filth,  besides  other  mis- 
chief, is  predisposed  to  fermentation,  and  is,  of  course,  produc- 
tive of  heat :  and  by  forming  the  pans  in  which  it  ie  placed,  so 
as  to  make  them  narrow  at  the  bottom  and  wide  at  the  top,  that 
tliev  may  offer  to  the  atpiosphere  the  largest  possible  surface. 

The  separation  of  the  butter  from  the  milk,  by  churning,  must 
be  C3.refully  and  thoroughly  performed.  And  for  an  invariable 
fule,  it  should  be  a  moderate  and  continued  agitation.     If  the 


194  AORICCLTURAL    ESSAT3. 

movement  be  too  slow,  or  frequently  intercepted,  the  effect  in 
tended  is  not  produced ;  and  if  hurried  and  violent,  the  cream 
is  too  r»uch  heated,  and  yields  a  white  and  curd  like  butter. 
When  this  operation  is  well  performed,  the  butter  is  found  ad- 
hering to  the  stajffand  flyers  of  the  churn;  is  of  an  agreeable 
taste  and  color,  and  of  a  certain  degree  of  consistency. 

The  ordinary  process  of  salting  butter,  is  general 'y  wellun^ 
derstood  by  those  who  have  the  management  of  the  dairy.  It 
need  only  be  remarked,  that  the  salt  employed  for  that  purpose 
should  be  of  the  purest  kind,  well  oried  and  broken  down,  but: 
not  completely  pulverized  ;  and  should  be  so  worked  in  as  toi 
become  equally  incorporated  with  the  mass.  j 

The  following  preparation  however,  is  recommended  by  Doet 
Andersen,  which  not  only  prevents  the  butter  from  becoming 
in  any  way  tainted,  or  rancid,  but  also  improves  its  look  or  ap- 
pearance, while  it  imparts  a  sweeter  and  richer  taste  than  could 
have  been  eifected  by  theuse  of  common  salt  only.  Let  two 
parts  of  the  best  common  salt,  sugar  and  salt  petre,  of  each 
one  part,  be  completely  blended  together  by  beating,  and  add 
one  ounce  of  this  mixture  to  every  pound  of  butter,  incorporate 
it  thoroughly  in  the  mass,  and  close  it  up  for  use.  It  will,  how- 
ever, be  necessary  to  keep  butter  thus  prepared  for  two  oi 
three  weeks  before  it  is  used,  otherwise  it  will  not  taste  well 

But  if  properly  cured,  according  to  the  directions  above 
Doct.  Anderson  states,  that  it  will  continue  so  perfectly  sweei 
for  three  years,  as  not  to  be  distinguished  from  newly  madt 
and  salted  butter.  The  best  butter  is  that  made  during  the 
summer  ;  but  by  adding  a  certain  portion  (which  experienc* 
only  can  determine,)  of  the  juice,  expressed  from  the  pulp  o: 
carrots,  to  the  cream,  previously  to  churning,  winter  made  but- 
ter will  acquire  the  appearance  and  flavor-  of  butter  that  ha! 
been  churned  during  the  prime  part  of  the  summer  season. 

There  are  several  modes,  or  variations,  of  making  this  im 
portant  article  of  domestic  consumption,  the  explanation  o 
which  would  occupy  too  much  of  this  limited  work. 

Those,  of  either  sex,  who  may  have  the  management  of  th< 
dairy,  will,  after  whatever  may  be  said  upon  the  subject,  insis, 
that' it  is  the  most  important  and  the  most  difficult  to  procurt 
the  means  of  furnishing  themselves  with  a  competent  supply 
good  milk  for  the  purpose.  But  as  the  quantity  desired  cannj 
always  be  procured,  it  is  an  object  of  no  small  consequence 
po>sses?  the  science  of  making  the  most  of  it. 


MANAGEMENT    OF    A  DAIRY.  jg'S 

The  fojiov/ing  method  of  preparing  cream,  which  is  said  to 

|be  pecuhar  to  some  counties  in  Great  Britain,  is  too  interesting 

to  be  unnoticed.     The  milk,  when  24  hours  from  the  cow,  is  put 

into  a  kettle  over  a  slow  fire,  which  should  be  hot  enoucrh  to 

ibring  It  very  near  to  the  boiling  point  in  about  two  hoursr  and 

;not  less.     A  person,  usually  a  child,  is  set  to  watch  it,  and  the 

moment  a  bubble  rises  to  the  top,  formed  by  the   vaporized 

milk,  the  whole  is  taken  off  and  set  to  rest  for  24  hours  more. 

At  the  end  of  this  time,  if  the  quantity  of  milk  be  consi'derahle, 

tn e  crearn  will  be  an  inch  or  more  thick  uptn  the  surface.     It  is 

now  divided  by  a  knife  into  squares  of  a  convenient  size  and 

-emoyed.      The  milk,  remaining  after  the  cream  is  taken  off, 

contains  little  beside  the  watry    particles  in  its  original  compo- 

n.ion      I  he  djury  women  in  those  counties  say,  that  milk  thus 

reated,   will  yield  one  fourth  more  butter  than  is  pi-oduced-in 

he  common  way,  and  that  a  few  strokes  of  the  churn  wiU  form 

uch  cream  into  excellent  butter.      At  present  this  cream  is 

hietiy  confined  to  the  breakfast  table :  it  is  excellent  for  w^e 

vith  coffee,  but  when  put  into  tea,  it  injures  its  taste,  bv  beinff 

ns.  antly  converted,  partiaUy  into  butter,  which  rises  to  the  sur- 

ace.     Cream,  prepared  as  above,  will  keep  somewhat  longer 

nan  common  cream.  ^ 

It  is  said  that  the  quantity  of  milk  produced  by  cows  fed  by 

intoin,  IS  neariy  double  to  that  of  any  other  food.      The  milk 

^'Iso  much  richer,  and  will  yield  a  larger  quantity  of  cream. 

s  butter  will  also   be  better  colorea  and  flavored  than  any 

cr.     Parsnips  are  also  easily  raised,  and  will  cause  cows  t© 

Mice  abundance  of  milk,  and  they  eat  them  as  freely  as  they 

3  oil  cake  or  corn  meal.     For  cows  w'dch  are  milked  in  the 

inter  season,  succulent  food,  as  roots  of  some  kind,  should  be 

•ovr.eu,  and  there  is. none  of  more  value  than  the  parsnip-.* 

VV  ith  respect  to  the  making  and  preservation  of  cheese,  there 

much  valuable  science  to  be  found  in  the  Complete  Grazier: 

3m  which  a  few  remarks  shall  here  be  inserted. 

The  primary  object  in  making  good  cheese  is  to  have  run- 

tvyeil  prepared.      Dairy  women. usually  preserve  the  maw, 

d  the  curd  contamed  in  it,  after  salting  them,  and  then  by 

icping  tins  bag  and  curd,  make  a  rennet,  to  turn  the  milk  for 

iking  cheese.      But  a  more  simple  method,  and  which  is  e- 

ally  good  in  every  respect,  is  to  throw  away  She  curd,  and  af- 

•  steeping  it  in  pickle,  stretcn  out  the  maw  upon  a  slend^ 

'-Seeessy  on  gardeaingio 


aiR 

'he  I 


196  AsmceLttriiAL  essAts. 

bow  inserted  int.  it,  which  will  sooBbe  ve'v  dry,  and  keep ^» 
for  a  long  t.me.     Take  an  inch  or  two  of  the  maw  thus  (Iriea, 
eSid  steep  it  over  night  in  a  few  spoonfulls  of  warm  water, 
which  wSerservesfuB  as  wellas  if  the  cuid  had  been  preserved 
^r  turning  the  milk.    It  is  said  that  one  inch  will  serve  for  the 
mSk  of  fivl  cows       An  ingenious  writer,  who  has  made  strict 
mq.,iry  into  tto  subject,  recommends  the  Mo^fg  ™fth°d  »f 
prepar^inga^««°«t'^'^''''^''  ^"^  ""'"  ^"""^  *"  *"  ''"""*''^'' 
"""Throw  I^ay  the  natural  curd,  which  is  apt  to  taint  and  give 
the  bag  a  bad  smell ;   then  make  an  art'^'^-.^'^  "J  '^*a1 
butter,  of  new  cream,  of  sufficient  quantity  to  6"  ^e  bag.     Add 
three  new  laid  eggs  well  beaten,  one  nutmeg  grated  tine,  or  any 
other  good  spicSfmix  them  well  together  with  three  teacup, 
full  of  fine  salt  •  fill  the  rennet  bag  with  this  substance,  tie  up 
the  mouSi    lav  it  under  a  strong  brine  for  three  days,  turning 
kov^daUy'^  Then  hang  it  up^n  a  cool  and  dry  place  for  s« 
It  over  aaiiy.     a " ^  g        r     ^.         ^  ^      gg^  take  with 

""But  whatever  kind  of  rennet  the  dairy  woman  "»? 'h°°f^  J 
prepare,  it  should  be  remembered  that  this  animal  ^"^  '^^^f 
U-emelv  aptto  become  rancid  and  putrescent,  and  that  g[^" 

c^res  necessary  to  apply  '^  ^"S"^"' \"''"',"y  ,°fi^/L\e*^oc 
serve  it  in  its  best  slate ;  because  the  rank  and  putrid  taste,  oc 
farionally  found  in  some  cheeses,  is  owing  to  a  putridity  m  the 

'"The  following  mode  of  preserving  it  in  a  swcetstateis  prac- 
''•^^^L^rrCtCS'st^oT^he  purpose,  le,  a  strong  sol. 
tion  of  salt  be  made,  with  two  quarts  of  sweet  ™ft  water,  ^ 
add  to  this  small  quantities  of  almost  ev_ery  indigenous  and  tor 
eien  aromatics  and  spices  that  can  be   obtained.      B"'' '^ 
whole  ..ently,  till  the  decoction  is  reduced  to  three  P™  ^.  °v«a 
Sear  fire,  if  possible,  or  ataU  events,  so  that  it  may  not  become 
iokyAexriet  theliquor  be  carefully  strained,  and  pour^^^^ 
Lpid  state  upon  the  rennet  bag.  A  lemon  may  now  be  sliced  mlo 
it  •  and  after  the  whole  has  stood  at  rest  for  one  or  tw  o  days,  ii 
miy  be  s  tained  and  bottled.      If  well  corked  it  ^v•■ll;et«'"^'; 
Joidaess  for  a  year,  or  even  longer,  and  will  communicate  an 


-5rA:NAGEMENT  OF  A    DAITIT.  1^ 

■agreeable  aromatic  "flavor  to  the  cheese  that  may  be  made  with 
it.  When  no  good  rennet  can  be  procured,  a  decoction  of 
the  yellow  flowers  of  the  cheese  rennet,  or  yellow  lady's  bed 
straw,  gallium  verreni,  (which  blossoms  in  July  and  August,) 
will  answer  every  purpose  for  coagulating  miik.  Or  the  ma- 
rine acid,  in  the  hands  of  a  judiciol^B  person  may  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  as  is  practiced  in  Holland. 

There  are  different  modes  of  making  cheese-practised  by 
our  dairy  women,  who  have  each  of  them  much  confidence  in 
their  own  skill  and  soience.  It  will,  perhaps,  best  comport 
with  this  short  work,  to  insert  only  an -account  of  a  single 
mode,  practised  in  England,  which  seems  to  embrace  the  best 
and  most  generally  approved  views  of  this  manufactory  in  the 
United  States. 

After  the  milk  is  brought  to  a  certain  degree  of  heat,  (about 
100  degrees  of  the  thermometer  upon  the  average,  though  in 
summer  90  will  be  sufficient,  as  on  the  contrary,  during  win- 
ter a  higher  degree  will  be  requisite)  it  is  poured  into  a  large 
-vessel,  where  the  rennet  is  added  to  it,  and  which  is  closely 
covered  up  for  a  short  time,  perhaps  ten  or  twelve  minutes. 
If  the  rennet  be  good,  it  will  have  effected  a  coagulation  of 
the  milk,  which  is  gently  stirred,  when  the  whey-begins  imme- 
diately to  separate,  which  is  taken  off*  as  it  gathers,  until  the 
cura  becomes  tolerably  solid.     It  is  then  put  into  a  drainer, 
(a  vessel  made  for  the  purpose,  the  bottom  of  which  is  perfor- 
ated with  small  holes]  and  the  cover  of  which  is  pressed  down 
with  any  convenient  weight.     After  it  hus  thus  stood  for  some 
time,  and  is  pretty  dry,  it  is  returned  into  the  first  vessel,  or 
dish,  where  it  le  cut  into  very  small  pieces  by  means  of  a 
cheese  knife,  (which  is  furnished  with  three  or  fowr  blades, 
fixed  on  prongs  from  the  handle,  that  cut  m  ^horizontal  di- 
rection) it  is  then  salted,  and   properly  mixed  by  the  hand. 
Lastly,  it  is  pat  into  a  cheesitt,  or  stout  dish  with  iron  hoops, 
which  has  a  cover  that  goes  exactly  into  it  :•  a  cloth  being  pla- 
ced between  the  curd  and  the  vessel.    In  this  case  it  is'sub- 
mitted  to  the  action  of  the  cheese-press,  when  it  is  occasion- 
ally taken  and.  wrapped  in  dry  cloths,  till  it  has.  completely 
parted  with  the  whey:  when  this  is  suspected  to  be  the  case^ 
the  cheese  is  laid  aside  for  one  or. two  days,  when  it  is  again 
eaxmined  :  and  if  there-be  any  appearance  ef  whey  remaining, 
the  pressure  and  application  of  cioths  are  repeated.     As  soon 
as  it  IS  ascertained  that  the  whey  is  extracted,  the  cheese  is 
laid  out  on  boards  made  for  the  purpose,  (and  which  are,  si 

Jl:3 


198  A6a!€ULTtniAL  ESSAYS. 

should  be,  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  cheese)  or  6n  a  "deal,  or 
pine-wood  floor,  or  boards,  as  well  as  to  notice  whether  any 
whey  runs  from  them,  because  no  cheese  will  keep  well  whilfe 
amy  whey  remains.  Besides,  if  that  part  sours,  the  whole  cheese 
will  acquire  a  disagreeable  flavor  and  smell ;  or  if  any  immod- 
erate quantity  of  rennet  be  used,  it  will  produce  similar  efiects, 
and  also  blow  up  the  cheese  full*  of  small  holes  ;  which  last  ef- 
fect will  alsoresult  from  suffering  the  cheese  to  continue  too 
long  on  one  side.  Aft«r  the  cheese  is  cured,  various  modes 
'  are  adopted  in  polishing  them  for-sale,  which  are  often  rather 
injurious  than  beneficial  ;  nothing  farther  being  requisite,  be- 
-fiides  turning  them,  than  to  rub  them  occasionally  with  a  coars* 
<cloth,  especially  after  harvest,  because  at  that  time  they  terni 
to  breed  mites.* 

Some  general  remarks  must  close  this  essay. 

Throughout  the  system  Of  the  dairy  management,  the  vigi- 
lant eye  of  the  principal  ought  carefully  to  pervade  ;  as  it  rare- 
'ly  happens  that  servants  -are  to  be  found  ,who  will  give  that 
ioainute  attention  to  every  particular,  which  is  so  indispensably 
necessary,  to  insure  success.  On  this  accotmt,  it  is  more  like- 
ly that  a  dairy  farm  of  moderate  size,  one  for  instance  that 
will  keep  tea  or  twelve  cows,  will,  if  well  managed,  afford  more 
"profit  than  one  of  greater  extent ;  because  in  the  former  case, 
the  farmer's  wife  (and  daughter,  if  he  have  any)  can  more  easi- 
ly superintend,  or  perhaps  perform,  a  considerable  part  of  the 
dairy  qperatioDB  themselves  ;  and  thisis  always  better  done  by 
them  than  we  can  ever  expect  it  to  be  by  hired  servants.  No 
brajtich  Of  husbandry  requires  such  unremitting  attentiouA. 
If,  as  has  been  very  justly  remarked  by  Sir  John  Sinclair,  a 
few  spoonfulls  of  milk  are  left  in  thetidder  of  the  cow  at  milk- 
ing 5  if  any  one  of  the  implements  of  the  dairy  be  allowed  to 
be  tainted  by  neglect ;  if  the  dairy  house  be  kept  dirty,  or  out 
•f  order ;  if  the  milk  is  either  too  hot  or  too  cold  at  coagulat- 
ing ;  if  too  much  or  too  little  rennet  is  put  into  the  milk ;  if  th« 
whey  is  not  immediately  taken  ©if;  if  too  much  or  too  littte 

*  Farm*r^s  Magassine,  vol.  iv.  p.  381. 


PdVLTRY.  ^^ 


sSlt  is  applied ;  if  the  butter  is  too  slowly  or  too  hastily  churn- 
ed •  or  if  other  minute  attentions  are  neglected,  the  milk  will  be 
in  a  great  measure  lost.  If  these  nice  operations  occurred 
-enly  once  a  month,  or  once  a  week,  they  might  be  easily.guard- 
ed  against;  but  as  they  require  to  be  observed  during  every 
8ta4  of  the  process,  and  almost  every  hour  of  the  day,  the 
most  vigilant  attention  must  be  kept  up  throughout  the  whole 
-season.  That  is  not  to  be  expected  from  hired  servants.  1  he 
wives  and  daughters  of  farmers,  therefore,  havmg  a  greater 
interest  in  the  concern,  are  more  likely  to  bestow  tharcon- 
slant,  anxious,  and  unremitting  attention  to  the  dairj',  without 
•  which  it  cannotbe  rendered  profitable;* 


PoULTlfY. 


^TflE  advftntacres  which  the  farmer  may  derive  from  keeping 
Doultry,  may  depend  in  some  measure  on  his  local  situation. 
Cthe  vicinity  oflarge  towns,  or  cities,  they  may  be  made  a 
profitable  source  ot"  income  ;  and  m  pvery  situation  in  the 
c^ntrv,  though  one  may  have  the  occupancy  of  no  more  land 
SVs^sufficilnt  for  a  garden,  the  keeping  ot  a  few  fowls  wO^ 
furnish  some  of  the  necessaries,  and  even  luxuries  .of  life,  at 
but  little  expence.  Indeed,  an  actual  advantage  is  derived  to 
the  owner  by  the  destruction  of  various  insects,  which  conBti- 
tute  at  least,  a  part  of  their  food  a  great  proportion  of  the 

^^There  is  not  a  more  nutrative  food,  of  the  same  expence,  than 
the  eggs  of  the  dunghill  fowl 

*  Seelhe  Complete  GrazieTc 


^  AGRICULTURAL   ESSAYS. 


'wT^  1/  V"^  ^'".^"1^7  c^Penment,  respecting  the  fattening 
of  poultry,  IS  from  the  National  -Recorder.  In^the  winter  If 
J«l«,  a  gentleman  in  the  city  of  New-York  placed  a  Turkey 

Z  '?on"r  f°'f  ^^^"'■  r^'  ^'^'  ^^"ff'  t^'«  ^e^t  wide,  and  three 
or  four  feet  high.  He  excluded  as  much  light  as  he  could 
without  a  circulation  of  air,  and  fed  the  turkey  with  soft  brick 
broken  in  pieces,  vvith  charcoal  also  broken,  and  with  six  grains 
€f  corn  per  day.^Fresh  water  was  daily  supplied.  The^  box! 
or  coop,  in  which  the  turkey  was  placed,iie  always  locked  up 
h/t^rf^'l r^i^'Ju"'^^"^  '^^'  perfectly  confident  that  no  body 
interfered  with  the  experiment.  At  the  end  of  one  month 
tne  turkey  was  killed,  and  Avas  found  to  be  filled  up  with  fat, ' 
/  /w  and  entraife  were  dissected,  and  nothing  was 
^ound  but  a  residuum  of  charcoal  and  brick.  The  Turkey  was 
eaten  and  found  to  be  very  good.  The  next  year  he  repeated 
the  experiment  with  the  same  success.*  This  is  not  mention- 
ed as  a  matter  of  so  much  importance  to  the  farmer,  whogen- 

jfX^^^f^^'l''''^'''^}^^^y^^'^^^  P«"ltry;  but  it  is  an  in- 
stance  of  the  efficacy  of  chemical  science,  in  the  develope- 
ment  of  facts  which  may  be  of  great  importance  in  the  im- 
provement of  agricultural  and  domestic  economy. 
_  it  may,  however,  be  an  object  of  no  minor  consequence  to 
the  poorer  class  of  our  citizens,  to  know,  that  in  exigences  oT 
extremity,  they  may  save  their  little  stock  of  poultry  by  raking- 
from  their  ashes  the  remnant  of  charcoal. 

It  is  observed  in  the  Complete  Grazier,  that  a  spirited  farm- 
er near  Liverpool,  keeps  a  large  stock  ofpoultry  in  the  same  . 
mclosure,  with  smgular  success.      He  has  nearly  an  aero  en- 
closed with  a  close  slab  fence,  about  seven  feet  high.     The 

!?P  u  u"^  ^^  •^''^^y  '^^^^^  ^^"P  pointed,  likl  pickets, 
though  perhaps  this  is  not  necessary.  Within  this  enclosure 
are  put  up  slight  small  sheds,  well  secured  from  rains,  how- 
ever,  for  the  different  kinds  ofpoultry,  and  his  supplied  with  a 
OTiall  stream  of  water.  The  poultry  are  regularly  fed  three 
times  a  day  with  boiled  potatoes,  which  is  their  only  food,  ex- 
cept what  grass  may  grow  within  their  encloeure.     The  dung 

*The  farmfer,  or  ether  citizen,  unacquainted  with  the  science  of 
-chemistry,  will  not  think  this  account  so  incredible,  when  thej 
are  informed,  that  carbon  is  the  basis  of  charcoal,  and  that  car- 
bon IS  a  necessary  part  of  sugrar  of  oil,  &c.  and  Consequently  en- 
tersinto  the  composition  of  animal  milk,  and  of  animal  oils  and 
'  ?at.    See  Parker'3  Chemistry ,^  p.  270, 


201 


formixing  with  comports      ihi^n^^^  1  ^^^^^^^^^^,^   ^^ 

ment  in  the  vicinity  of  large  ^^^,f '.  ^"^^ntiemen  vho  live  in 
be  practiced  upon  a  ^^^^^^^'^^^^^  are  continually 

villages  or   ^"^"^P^f  ,^"„\'^^^^^^^^  H  ib  believed 

rrid^^rrtlTe^'tL^^akrei^^^  Umdf  of  poultry  sep- 
arate  when  practicable. 

if , veil  kept  and  'f  h^^  ,;|^4\%,'^f  .^bj   ea?rful  n>;nagl- 
Sa^itet^nt":kS:^nrn;ay   be  We.  fro.  each 

brood. 

blood,  and  the  chickens  ^^lll  presently  recover. 
{];i^?owir.^ree  geese  .hoSld  be  allowed  but  one  gander  ;  and  .f 


^^  AGillCULTDRAJL    ESSAYS. 


the  number  be  increased,  the  e^s:s  will   usuulWhn  r^nr\.^^r 
llllJ     -f  ^^^  ^'^V^^  ^^^  ^^"^^^  «t  tl^is  time  should  have 

f  fni^P  Although  the  plucking  them  so  often  as  is  the  prac- 
i?.  fr"""'/^^  ^^J,"  '"^^  ^^^y  th^i^'^  better  by  repeated  pfuck 
hf;«t  "i'"^^"'"  they  are  permitted  to  shed  their  feathe  s  in 
of  r  w'^  -T^^'  ''^t'^^  ^\^^  ^^^  t^"^^  of  maulting.  In  a  part 
of  Great  Britain  where  they  are  raised  in  the  greatest  num 
Ws  they  are  plucked  five  times  a  year.  Their  flesh  when  wdl 
.  atted  IS  preferred  by  some  to  that  of  the  turkey. 

Tw\^^''^^'^'i  °^  ^^"'^   "^""^^  ^^^    the   same  as  the  \vild 
They  begin  early  to  lay  their  eggs,  and  produce  a  cons  der- 

Aboui  twelve  IS  said  to  be  a  proper  number  for  the   ducks  to 

thlw  fnJ  %u^'^  gieeay  feeders,   and  not  particular  as  to 

fiftoi  :^^r^l  ^'"^   ^oud  of  animal  food,  and  are  quickly 

tirf  "T  t    ^^^^  ^'^  "^^^^"^  ^"  turnip  fields,  to  dest^ov  the 

iS/iT^''^  ^'^  ^P'  ^^  P'"-^  "P«"  th^  yo«"^  plants.       they 
'Should  have  access-to  a  supply  of  running  watir.  ^ 

hJf'^  Relieved  by  some  that  poultry  is  most  easiiy  fatted  Whes 
kept  m  a  dark  place,  and  fed  on  boiled  grain. 


IjaPEOVEMEXT    OF    BOG    MEADOWS.  203 


Improve 3IENT  or  Bog  Meadows. 

Those  bog  meadows  which  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
BGCtion  of  oar  countrv,  if  so  situated  as  to  admit  of  draining^ 
may  make  very  valuable  lands.  In  some  parts  of  the  northern 
states,  they  are  said  to  exceed  almost  any  others  for  raismg 
hemp.  Great  crops  of  herds-grass  may  also  be  raised  upon 
them.     But  they  must  be  vrell  drained  pthe  drier  thev  are  laid 

the  better.  .  i     j     •     «    + 

The  method  recommended,  for  drammg  these  lands,  is,  tirst 
to  run  a  ditch  through  the  middle,  and  draw  off  as  much  of  the 
water  in  this  way  as  possible.  When  the  meadow  is  very  wet 
and  miry,  you  commence  at  the  lowest  part  of  the  ground,, 
where  the  outlet  is  to  begin,  and  from  thence  carry  the  ditch 
into  the  meadow,  sinking  it  all  the  way,  as  you  proceed,  as  1o%t 
as  will  barelv  give  the  water  a  current  to  run  off;  a  ditch 
should  then  be  run,  of  the  same  depth,  all  round  the  edge  of 
the  bog,  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  off  ail  the  springs.  Cross 
ditches  should  then  be  made,  in  number  and  size,  proportionate 
to  the  extent  of  the  bog,  and  of  the  depth  of  the  middle  and 
surrounding  ditches.  When  the  mud,  taken  from  the  ditches, 
is  carted  on  to  dry  gravelly  and  sandy  land,  it  makes  excel- 
lent manure  ;  and  gravel  and  sand  is  equally  beneficial,  too,  as 
a  manure  for  bog  meadows.  * 

Potatoes,  cabbage,  carrots,  beets,  turnips,  parsnips,  and  even 
corn,  and  almost  every  grain,  except  w^heat,  have  been  cultivat- 
ed to  great  advantage  on  well  drained  bog  lands,  w'hen  well 
manured  with  upland  earths.  Hops,  also,  are  cultivated  to 
great  advantage  on  these  lands. 

When  the  farmer  discovers  that  there  is  but  a  thin  layer  of 
bog  dirt,  situated  on  a  deep  clayey  bottom,  it,  perhaps,  ought  to 
deter  him  from  the  expense  of  draining  the  s=wamp,  especially 
if  it  be  covered  with  a  thrifty  growth  of  timber.  Because  sit- 
uated as  such  clayey  bottoms  are,  so  contiguous  to  the  sur- 
rounding wet  lands,  it  would  probably  always  retain  too  muck 
moisture,  to  admit  of  the  successful  tillage  of  any  soil  that 
ciight  be  made  on  the  surface. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  bog  lands  will  settle  down  ve- 
ry much  after  draining,  for  which  a  proper  allowance  should. 
be  made  with  respect  to  ths  depth  of  the  ditch^, 

*  See  essay  oq  manures. 


^04  AGRICULTURAL    KSSA\S. 

Fi-OODI.\G  Land. 


This  may  be  done  by  -eovenng  low  lands  with  water,  when 
a  rivulet  passes  through  them,  by  .-naking  a  dam  at  the  out- 
let. Where  there  is  a  sufficiency  of  water,  and  a  short  dam 
will  answer,  this  is  a  piece  of  husbandry  that  ought  not  to  be 
neglected.  Oftentimes  it  may  be  of  great  advantage.  Some- 
times it  is  done  for  the  purpose  of  destroying  the  natural 
growth  of  trees,  bushes,  &c.  The  water  not  only  makes  an 
essential  alteration  in  their  food,  but  also  excludes  these  from 
the  free  air,  which  is  essentially  necessary  to  vegetation.  It 
is  no  wonder  therefore,  that  it  proves  their  destruction, 

The  flowing  of  two  summers,  is  found  sufficient  to  kill  eve- 
ry plant  of  the  woody  kind,  so  that  it  will  not  sprout  any  more. 
But  some  advige  to  draw  off  the  water  in  August,  that  the 
ground  maybe  for  a  few  days  heated  by  the  sun.  The  plants 
thus  suddenly  pass  from  one  extreme  to  another,  which  will 
doubtless  tend  to  destroy  them  ^e  sooper.  But  when  the  sea- 
son is  so  dry  that  another  pond  of  water  cannot  be  immediate- 
ly raised,  the  drawing  off  had  better  be  omitted.  Another 
object  of  flooding  is  to  enrich  the  soil.  Some  lay  their  low 
grass  lands  under  water  during  the  whole  of  the  winter.  This 
may  be  a  good  method  for  lands  which  are  so  low  and  wet> 
that  none  of  the  best  grasses  can  be  made  to  grow  on  them. 
The  poor  water  grasses  will  grow  the  faster,  and  the  crops  of 
such  hay  as  jt  is,  will  be  the  larger. 

But  places  where  clover,  or  herds  grass,  or  red  top  will 
flourish,  should  not  be  flowed  during  the  winter;  because  the 
winter  frosts  are  known  to  be  necessary  to  the  production  of 
those  grasses. 

Flooded  lands  should  always  be  laid  bare  early  in  the  sipring). 
that  the  growth  of  the  grass  be  npt  prevented ;  or  that  the 


i  tOOBlNG  LAND. 


20j 


-ground  may  be  dried  so  early  as  to  be  fit  lor  tillage  crops. 
And  ditching  flooded  lands,  at  least  round  the  borders,  will  be 
necessary  to  lay  them  dry  enowgh  for  tillage. 

As  standing  water  catches  dust  from  the  atmosphere,  and 
always  contains  more  or  less  of  the  finest  particles  of  soil,  it 
deposits  a  rich  eedement  ^  a  fat  slime  therefore,  will  remain 
on  the  surface  after  the  water  is  removed.  And  a  time  should 
be  chosen  for  drawing  it  off,  when'the  air  is  calm,  and  the  wa- 
ter clearest,  that  as  little  aquantity  as  possible  of  the  food  of 
the  plants  may  pass  off  with  it.  Such  land  is  no  more  liable  to 
suffer  by  drouglitthan  the  fertile  land  of  Egypt,  which  is  year- 
ly enriched  by  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile. 

Though  winter  flooding  does  not  suit  the  nature  of  good  gras- 
ses, a  few  days  flooding  hi  the  spring  and  fall  will  not  hurt 
"them,  but  will  enrich  the  soil  and  so  promote  their  growth. 
The  soil  will  have  the  same  advantage  as  intervale,  which  is 
made  rich  and  fruitful  by  occasional  flooding;  and  even  a 
greater  advantage,  as  the  water  may  be  removed  and  applied 
at  pleasure." 


208"  AGRICULTURAL   ESi*.?^ 

The  Horse-Rake. 


A- horse-rake  may  be  procured  at  an  expense  not  exceeding^ 
two  dollars.  It  is  constructed  thus  :  Take  a  stick  of  timber, 
of  any  stout  wood,  ash,  chessnut,  fir,  or  spruce,  will  be  suffi- 
cient, ten  feet  long,  if  your  mowing. lands  are  free  from  ob- 
structions, and  if  obstructed  with  stumps  or  rocks,  then  short- 
en the  head  of  the  rake  to  your  convenience.  The  rake-head 
may  be  three  and  a  half  inches  by  two  and  a  half  diameter, 
or  as  you  please;  The  t^eth  should  be  twenty-two  inches 
long,  and  one  inch  by  one  inch  and  a  half  diameter,  and  set 
firmly  into  the  head,  about  two  inches  and  a  half  apart.  These 
teeth  may  be  made  of  firm  white  ash,  or  walnut,  or  oak.  The 
Jeeth  should  b6  made  at  the  end  to  turn  up,  so  as  to  run  on  the 
ground  like  a  small  sled,  and  not  into  the  earth.  On  the  top^  of 
the  head  should  be  fixed  about  sevea  small  standards,  eighteen 
inches  high,  to  prevent  the  hay  falling  over  the  head;  In  the 
centre  of  the  head  fix  two  handles,  such  as  are  usually  fixed 
to  ploughs,  at  a  suitable  distance,  to  guide  and  steady  the  rake. 
From  the  ends  of  the  rake  extend  a  ropeof  the  size  of  a  cart, 
rope,  to  fasten  the  horse's  collar.  The  distance  of  the  horse 
from  the  rake  may  be  such  a&^to  leave  room  foj.tiie  hay  to, 
gather.  Observation  will  soon  direct  the  length  of.  the  ropes. . 
Gare  must  be  used  to  have  the  teeth  set  even  and  2rm,  that  they 
may  run  near  the  earth.  This  raka  may  be  used  to  collect  the 
hay  into  winrows,  or  pile  it  up  into  heaps ;  and  it  is  useful  in. 
all  grain  fields,  to  glean  the  scattered  grain,  and  to  lay  down 
the  stubble  close  to  the  earth,  to  rot  and  promote  vegetation. 

This  rake  may  be  considered  a  labor-saving  machine,  and  is 
particularly  useful,  when  the  place  of  deposit  for  your  hay  is 
in  the  same  fifeld  where  the  grass  is  out,  whether  it  is  to  be 
stacked  or  put  into  a  barn  ;  as  you  can  then  gather  large  piles 
out  of  the  winrow,  and  draw  them  direct  to  tlie  pfece  of  depo- 
sit at  one  and  the  same  operation,.,thereby  saving. the  once 
gitching  of  your  hay.. 


HARROWS    AND    HARROWING.  JJ07 

'  It  is  said  by  one  who  is  acquainted  with  this  machine,  th«t 
"it  will  enable  one  man,  with  a  steady  horse  and  boy,  to  perform 
T^t  least  as  much  work  in  gathering  hay  into  winrow  and  pile, 
as  six  good  men  can  accomplish,  and  as  clean  as  is  commonly 
idone"  in  reking  by  hand. 

Those  who  occasionally  cut  grass  for  hay  on  smooth  tillage 
ground,  or  have  smooth  meadows,  will  find  this  implement 

worthy  of  their  attention. 


Harrows,  and  HarrowinGo 

The  three-square  harrow  is  in  most  general  use,  and  b^e- 
ijeved  to  be  best^  it  should  be  longer  and  narrower  for  stony 
or  stumpy  ground,  and  wider  where  the  ground  is  smooth.  It 
is  essential  for  a  good  harrow  to  have  long  heavy  teeth,  made 
G-f  iron,  and  pointed  with  steel  at  the  end.  When  the  land  is 
rough,  there  ought  to  be  fewer  eeth  than  where  it  is  smootho 
-The  teeth  of  the  harrow,  for  rough  ground,  ought  to  be  set 
slanting  a  little  backward,  to  prevent  its  getting^  fastened  by 
the  stones,  roots,  and  stumps ;  and  on  the  contrary,  where  it  is 
used  for  smooth  ground,  .they  ought  to  be  set  slanting  consid- 
erably forward. 

Harrowing  on  wet  ground  should  be  performed  in  a  dry  time, 
tind  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  when  practicable.  -  On  dry  lands 
it  is  best  to  harrow  in  the  morning  while  the  dew  is  on,  aad 
when  the  ground  is  moderately  dry. 

-    The  ground  should  be  harrowed  before  ^eeds  are  sown;" 
-'•Uierwisa  ihey  will  be  buried  ^f  unequal  depths,  and  will  come 


;"iUS  AGRICULTURAL   ESSAYS. 

up  in  rows ;  as  most  of  the  seeds,  in  that  case,  will  be  thrown- 
into  the  bottom  of  the  furrow.  On  furrows  of  green  sward 
turned  under,  the  harrow  should  be  loaded  with  more  than  its 
common  weight,  and  run  length-ways  with  the  furrows.  When 
the  seed  is  sown  on  ridges,  the  harrow  ought  also-  to  run 
length-ways.  Harrowing  meadow  lands,  when  they  become 
bound,  or  become  cold  and  mossy,  is  often  of  essential  service 
to  them,  and  will  make  them  produce  much  more  abundantly 
the  following  years ;  though  when  circumstances  will  admit, 
breaking  such  lands  up  with  the  plough,  as  is  directed  in  the 
essay  on  improvement  of  land  by  ploughing,  is  preferable. 

Harrowing  wheat  and  rye  in  the  spring  is  considered  by 
European  writers  to  be  very  beneficial ;  but  this  must  depend 
on  the  condition  of  the  land.  It  might  be  useful  if  the  grain 
v/as  obstructed  with  such  kind  of  grass  or  weeds,  the  growth 
of  which  would  probably  be  retarded  or  defeated  by  the  ope- 
ration. 

The  double  harrow,  or  two  three-square  harrow^s,  the  one 
inside  of  the  other,  is  believed  to  be  an  improvement  on  the 
common  harrow.  To  make  this,  let  the  two  outside  pieces  be 
eix  feet  six  inches  long  *,  the  tongue,  or  middle  piece,  five  feet 
eix  inches  ;  the  inside  pieces,  four  feet  long;  the  sheath,  or 
cross  piece,  one  inch  thick  by  four  inches  wide ;  the  rest  of 
the  timber  three  by  four  inches  square ;  the  hind  part  of 
the  harrow,  nx  feet  six  inches  wide,  from  outside  to  outside  ; 
and  to  contain  nineteen  teeth.  It  is  very  obvious  that  such  a 
harrow  will  more  completely  pulverize  the  ground,  thah  the 
ones  most  commonly  in  use. 

It  should  always  be  considered  that  the  condition  of  the  soil 
may  be  such  as  to  require  the  harrowing  to  be  deeper  for 
some  purposes  than  others.  If,  for  instance,  you  have  plough- 
ed in  dry  compost  manure,  with  a  shallow  furrow,  in  that  case 
your  harrow  teeth  should  not  be  permitted  to  penetrate  so 
deep  as  to  uncover  it:  To  be  rendered  most  efficacious,  it 
should  all  remain  covered  by  the  soil.  So  also -some  seed 
<^hould  be  covered  deeper  than  others.    Hpnce  it  is  obvious 


tHE   PLOUGH.  209 

that  it  19  expedient  for  the  farmer  to  have  tWn  pieces  of  wcoci, 
or  slit-work,  of  different  widths,  at  hand,  to  be  placed  on  the 
top  of  the  harrow,  with  holes,  through  which  the  teeth  may 
fee  placed,  to  prevent  their  penetrating  deeper  than  the  condi- 
tion of  the  soil,  or  the  nature  of  the  crop  may  require. 


The  Plougu, 

We  are  indebted  to  the  proper  and  efficacious  use  of  the 
plough,  for  the  advantages  of  agricultural  science,  and  the 
blessings  of  civil  life.  A  knowledge,  therefore,  of  its  best 
construction  and  management,  is  indispensable.  There  is  in- 
deed no  other  means  of  avoiding  the  errors  and  impositions  of 
visionary  and  speculating  projects  relating  to  this  important 
implement,  but  by  adopting  certain  correct  and  practical  prin- 
ciples relating  to  it. 

The  great  points  to  be  attended  to  in  ploughing,  are,  1,  to 
open  a  fair,  regular  furrow ;  and  2,  to  do  this  with  as  little 
resistance  as  possible.  It  has  been  believed  that  these  advan- 
tages may  as  well  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  plough  to  which 
the  mould  board  invented  by  Thomas  Jefferson,  is  affixed  ;  the 
following  account  of  which,  and  of  the  principles  upon  which  it 
is  constructed,  are  taken  from  a  communication  addressed  to 
Sir  John  Sinclair,  in  1798,  then  President  of  the  British  Board 
of  Agriculture,  and  inserted  in  the  Transactions  of  the  American 
Philosophical  Society ,4th  vol.  "The mould  board  should  be  a 
continuation  of  the  wing  of  the  plough-share,  beginning  at  its 
kinder  edge,  ^nd  in  the  same  place.  Its  first  offic?  is  to  receiv© 
s  2 


210  A6RICULTU&AL    iESSAYS. 

the  sod  horizontally  from  the  wing ;  to  raise  it  to  a  proper 
height  for  being  turned  over,  and  to  make,  in  its  progress,  the 
least  resistance  possible,  and  consequently  to  require  a  less 
force  in  the  moving  power.  Were  this  its  only  office,  the 
wedge  would  offer  itself  as  the  most  eligible  form  in  practice. 
But  the  sod  is  to  be  turned  over  also.  To  do  this,  the  one  edge 
of  it  is  not  to  be  raised  at  all ;  for  to  raise  this  would  be  a  waste 
of  labor.  The  other  edge  is  to  be  raised  till  it  passes  the  per- 
pendicular, that  it  might  fall  over  of  its  own  weight.  And  that 
this  may  be  done  so  as  to  give  also  the  least  resistance,  it  must 
^e  made  to  rise  gradually  from  the  moment  the  sod  is  receiv- 
ed. The  mould  board  then,  m  this  second  office,  operates  as  a 
transverse,  or  rising  wedge,  ihe  point  of  which  sliding  back 
horizontally  on  the  ground,  the  other  end  continues  rising  till 
it  passes  the  perpendicular.  Or,  to  vary  the  point  of  view, 
place  on  the  ground  a  v^edge  of  the  breadth  of  the  plough- 
share, of  its  length  from  the  wing  backward,  and  as  high  at  the 
heel  as  it  is  >vide  :  draw  a  diagonal  on  its  upper  face,  from  the 
left  angle  at  the  point,  to  the  right  upper  angle  of  the  heel ; 
bevil  the  face  from  the  diagonal  to  the  right  bottom  edge, 
which  lies  on  the  ground.  That  half  is  thea  evidently  in  the 
best  form  for  performing  the  two  offices  of  raising  and  turning 
the  sod  gradually,  and  with  the  best  effect ;  and  if  you  will 
suppose  the  same  bevil  continued  across  the  left  side  of  the  di- 
agonal, that  is,  if  you  will  suppose  a  straight  line,  whose  length 
is  at  least  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  wedge,  applied  on  the 
face  of  the  first  bevil,  and  moved  backwards  on  it,  parallel  with 
itself  and  with  the  end  of  the  wedge,  the  lower  end  of  the  hne 
moving  along  the  right  bottom  edge,  a  curved  plane  will  b« 
generated,  whose  characteristic  will  be  acombinatien  of  the 
principle  of  the  wedge  in  cross  directions^  and  will  give  what 
we  seek,  the  mould  board  of  least  resistance.  It  offers  to  tW« 
great  advantage,  that  it  may  be  made  by  the  coarsest  work- 
man,  by  a  process  so  exact,  that  its  form  shall  never  be  varied 
^  single  hair's  breadth.  One  fault  of  all  other  mould  boards  is, 
that  being  copied  by  the  eye,  no  two  will  be  alike.    In  truth, 


THE    PiOUGH,  211 

it  is  easier  to  form  the  mould  board  I  speak  of,  with  precision, 
than  to  describe  that  method,  either  by  words  or  figures. 

The  following  rules  for  constructing  a  plough  are  from  a 
Pennsylvania  farmer :— In  constructing  ploughs,  the  beam 
ought  to  be  placed  directly  over  the  land  side  of  the  plough, 
so  that  the  cut  of  the  coulter  may  be  square  with  the  cut  of 
the  share ;  and  the  land  should  be  given  to  the  plough  be- 
tween the  coulter  mortise  and  the  fore  end  of  the  beam :  for 
if  the  cutting  of  the  share  and  coulter  makes  an  acute  angle 
with  the  land,  then  the  plough  will  incline  to  fall  to  the  right : 
but  if  it  makes  an  obtuse  angle,  then  it  will  incline  to  fall  to 
the  left.  A  plough  for  two  horses  ought  not  to  be  less  than 
nine  inches,  nor  more  than  ten  inches  wide,  in  the  bottom ; 
and  for  three  horses,  from  eleven  to  twelve  inches  wide.  The 
share  should  never  differ  much  in  width  from  the  plough. 
The  cut  of  the  share  and  bottom  of  the  plough  should  be  ex= 
actly  in  one  plane.  A  three-horse  plough  requires  no  land  in 
-Its  construction.  A  crook  of  three  inches  and  a  half  in  the 
beam,  before  the  coulter  mortise,  to  the  right,  will  suffice  for 
the  land  of  a  two-horse  plough.  A  plough  with  a  long  beam 
runs  the  steadiest,  and  it  being  long  prevents  the  plough  from 
kicking  ;  and  long  shafts  give  the  ploughman  a  greater  com- 
mand of  its  direction.  The  cast  iron  plate  ought  to  be  ecour- 
^  with  a  grit-etone  before  it  is  used. 


212  AGRZCrjLTURAl   E€dAT». 


Ploughing. 

In  the  essay  on  improvement  of  land  by  ploughing,  soin6 
remarks  have  been  made  on  the  proper  manner  of  performing 
that  operation.  Although  it  is  believed  that  the  soil  may  be 
fertilized  by  repeated  ploughing,  yet  much  will  depend  on  the 
manner  in  which  that  process  is  executed.  No  land,  excepting^ 
green  sward,  should  be  ploughed  when  it  is  so  wet  that  it  will 
not  easily  crumble.  The  principal  design  of  ploughing  is  tfe- 
break  the  cohesion  of  the  soil,  and  so  loosen  the  particles  froift 
each  other,  that  the  smallest  and  tenderest  roots  of  plants  may 
find  their  way  between  them  in  quest  of  their  nourishment. 
Neither  should  land  be  ploughed  when  the  furrow  turns  over 
like  a  dead  mass  of  mortar  ;  as  the  soil  becomes  no  lighter  or 
looser  by  it,  but  rather  heavier  and  more  compact  On  the 
contrary,  land  should  n«t  be  ploughed  when  it  is  too  dry,  as 
the  furrows  in  that  case  cannot  be  so  well  turned  over,  and  it 
requires  the  more  strength  of  team  to  perform  it. 

Green  sward  land  may  be  ploughed  at  any  season  of  the 
year,  if  it  be  not  too  dry,  nor  too  much  frozen. 

The  English  farmers  practise  ploughing  green  sward  ill 
January,  not  only  because  they  have  leisure,  but  because  it  is 
BO  wet  as  to  plough  easily.  They  call  it  ploughing  in  lays ; 
and  it  is  said  to  be  well  performed,  when  the  sward  is  all  com- 
pletely turned  over,  without  lapping  one  furrow  on  another. 

t3ur  farmers  are  sometimes  led  to  plough  too  shallow  to  save 
ft  little  labor.  And  some  are  too  much  afraid  to  turn  up  what 
they  call  dead  earth.  But  it  is  believed  that  all  the  soil  above 
the  hard  pan  may  be  well  employed  in  tillage  for  some  crops 
•or  other;  and  that  if  they  turn  up  a  red  soil,  it  will  in  a  year 
or  two  become  dark,  and  fit  to  nourish  plants,  by  being  exposed 
to  the  sun  and  to  the  weather,  and  imbibing  rich  particles  frona 
the  atmosphere. 


]?LOUGHING^  ,  2i'i 

French  ploughing  is  sometimes  practised  to  advantage  ;  and 
the  culture  of  some  plants  with  tap  roots  requires  it.  This  ie 
done  by  passing  a  plough  twice  in  a  furrow.  Ground  may  be 
thus  ploughed  to  the  depth  of  twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  But 
instead  of  this  double  labor  of  the  plough,  where  laborers  are 
plenty,  the  furrows  may  be  deepened  with  shovels,  by  a  number 
of  hands  following  the  plough. 

In  old  countries,  where  lands  have  been  tilled  for  many 
centuries,  and  have  been  frequently  manured,  the  rich  black 
soil  has  been  growing  deeper  and  deeper,  so  that  trench 
ploughing  may  be  very  necessary,  to  bring  up  the  strength  of 
manures,  which  has  subsided  to  a  greater  depth  than  common 
ploughing  reaches.  Where  this  practice  is  once  begun,  it 
should  be  continued,  at  least  through  a  course  of  tillage;  or 
^Ise  the  first  ploughings  will  be  in  some  measure  lost.  The 
best  of  the  soil  would  be  buried  at  such  a  depth  as  to  become 
almost  useless,  unless  it  were  alternately'^  brought  near  the 
surface,  by  after  ploughings  equally  deep. 

Green  sward  ground  that  is  broken  up  in  the  fall,  is  usually 
cross  ploughed  in  the  spring  following.  But  this  should  not 
be  done  without  caution.  For  if  the  turf  be  not  considerably 
rotted,  cross  ploughing  will  only  drive  it  into  heaps,  instead  of 
cutting  it  to  pieces.  Neither  will  the  harrow  reduce  the  turf 
to  powder.  In  this  case  it  would  be  best  to  omit  the  cross 
ploughing  t  and  after  a  heavy  harrowing  lengthwise  of  the 
furrows,  seed  the  land  with  peas,  potatoes,  or  maize,  or  any 
thing  that  will  do  well  with  such  culture. 

For  a  crop  of  winter  wheat,  the  tillage  ground  should  be 
ploughed  in  the  spring,  again  in  June,  and  lastly  just  before 
aowing.  Neither  should  this  practice  justify  the  omission  of 
ploughing  the  same  ground  the  preceding  fall,  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  hard  frosts,  which  should  always  be  done 
when  circumstances  v.'ill  admit. 

Whatever  manure  js  put  on,  it  should  be  done  just  before  th& 


'^^^  AGRICrtT^AL   ESSAtS. 

4ast  ploughing,  and  ploughed  in  immediately.  If  the  grain  be 
.ploughed  in  with  a  shoal  furrow,  it  will  not  be  so  liable  to  be 
killed  by  the  winter  frosts.  The  roots  will  lie  deeper  than 
those  of  harrowed  grain,  and  will  the  better  bear  drought  in 
the  following  summer,  if  that  should  happen. 

Some,  to  save  labor,  plough  their  lands' so  shallow  for  sowing 
as  ^carcely  to  take  up  the  roots  of  the  weeds.  This  is  believed 
to  be  bad  husbandry:  for  in  that  case-a  larger  crx)p  of  weeds 
may  be  expected,  than  if  it  had  not  been  ploughed  at  all ;  and 
that  the  roots  will  not  have  sufficient  room  to  extend  them- 
selves. Ploughing  the  ground-in  autumn  will  have  a  tendency 
to  prevent  this  most  absurd  conduct  in  theepring,  which  sonS6 
practice  toTavor  theit  teams  in  the  faint  season. 

Land  thatis  low  and  flat,  and  therefore  apt  to  be  too  w^t  and 
heavy,  ought  to  be  ploughed  in  ridges.  The  ridges  may  have 
two,  three,  or  four  furrows  on  each  side,  according  as  the 
ground  IS  wetter  or  drier.  The  wettest  ground  should  have 
the  narrowest  ridges  ;  but  they  never  should  be  narrower  than 
four  furrows  in  a  ridge.  The  rows  will  be  between  four  and 
-five  feet  apart,  if  one  row  of  plants  be  set  on  each  ridge.  But 
if  there  be-  eix  or  eight  furrows  in  a  ridge,  it  may  admit  of  two 
rows,  one  on  each  side  of  the  veering. 

After  lying  In  ridges  through  the  winter,  the  ridges  should 
be  thrown  into  the  hollows  by  another  ploughing  in  the  sprino-, 
which  will  bring  it  into  good  order  for  seeding.  Or,  if  it  shoufd 
be  too  miry  to  be  ploughed  in  the  spring,  either  Indian  corn  or 
potatoes  may  be  planted  on  the' ridges ;  and  -what  is  wanting 
6f  the  proper  tillage,  may  be  made  up  after  the  ground  has  be-, 
come  drier,  by  frequent  and  deep  horse  hoeings.  Good  cropj 
-of  com,  It  is  said,  have  been  obtained  iri  this  method,  on  lane 
which,  With  plain  ploughing,  would  have  produced  next  t©  va 
thing. 

Most  clay  soils,  which  lie  level,  require  this  sort  of  culture, 
for  this  more  than  any  other  soil  is  liable  to  be  injured  by  over- 
much wetness.  And  tbe  drierit  lies,  the  weaker  wUl  be  the  co- 
iieiion  of  it«  ^arts. 


^ome  sells,  which  lie  gently  slopinor,  are  so  wet  as  to  need 
r^gingf.  It  IS  not  best  to  make  the  ridges  directly  up  and 
-dovvn  the  slope,  nor  horizontally  ,  but  on  a  medium  between, 
both  But  when  t^ie  land  will  admit  of  it,  the  ridges  should  lie 
north  and  south. 

Tt  is  no  bad  practice  to  lay  lands  to  grass  in  ridges  or  beds, 
^or  too  much  wetness isapt  to hurtgrass lands, as  weU-as lands 
tor  tillage,  whether  they  are  used  for  mowing  or  -pasturage.  In- 
the  former  the  grass  will  be  too  sour  to- make  a  good  hay  ;  and 
m  the  latter,  not  only  the  grass  will  be  bad,  but  the  soil  so  soft 
as  not  well  to  bear  the  tread  of  cattle.  It  has  been  found  that 
better  grass  and  a  greater  quantity  may  be  produced  in  this 
way.     Nor  will  the  soil  so  soon  become  hard  and  bound 

Itis  practised  by  some  to  split  the  hills  with  a  lio-ht  plough,  in 
autumn,  after  a  crop  of  corn;  even  though  the  ground  be  not 
seeaed  till  the  following,  spring. .  One  side  of  a  row  of  hills  is 
ploughed  off  with- one  furrow,  and  the  other  side  ploughed  off 
the  contrary  way  by  another  furrow,  so  as  to  form  m'oderate 
ridges  in  the  intervals.  It  is  performed  with  less  than  half  the 
expense  of  plain  ploughing  ;  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  sur- 
face is  either  taken  up  or -covered.  It  has  been  said  by  Eu- 
ropean writers,  that  land  should  be.  ploughed  immediately 
after  a  crop  of  corn,  to  prevent  the  stubs  from  robbing  the  soil 
of  Its  jmces.  However  this  may  be,  the  ploughing  is  perhaps 
as  useful  as  other  autumnal  ploughings ;  and  where  dung  has 
been  put  in  the  holes,  it  mixes  it  with  the  soil ;  not  to  mention 
the  burying  of  some  of  the  stubs  and  leaves  of  the  corn,  which, 
vrjil  contribute  something  towards  enriching  the  soil. 

The  following  maxims  respecting  the  proper  depth  of 
ploughing  are  from  the  Code  of  Agriculture  : 

1.  The  depth  to  which  land  ought  to  beplouo-hed,  must 
first  be  regulated  by  the  depth  of  the  soil.     On  "these  soils 
more  especially,  on  a  rocky  substratum,  the  ploughing  must  ' 
Becessarily  be  shallow. 

2.  The  depth  ought  likewise  to  depend  on  the  means  ofim% 


210  AGRICULTUltAL   ESSAYS, 

proving  the  soil :  for  when  the  land  is  poor,  and  the  mesma  of 
enriching  it  are  scanty,  the  depth  of  ploughing  ought  to  be  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  manure  which  can  be  obtained. 

'3.  Deep  ploughing  is  highly  advantageous  upon  every  soil, 
excepting  those  where  the  substratum  is  of  an  ochry  sand.  In 
fact  such  are  scarcely  worthy  of  being  cultivated,  unless  in  sit- 
uations where  much  alluvial  compost,  or  common  street  manure 
can  be  procured. 

4.  It  is  a  general  rule,  never  to  plough  so  deep  as  to  pene- 
trate below  the  soil  that  was  formerly  manured  and  cultivated, 
excepting  upon  fallow,  and  then  only  when  you  have  plenty  of 
lime  or  dung  to  add  to  and  improve  the  new  soil. 

5.  Many  farmers  recommend,  wlien  fallowing  land,  to  go  as 
deep  as  possible  with  the  first  furrow,  by  which  the  subsequent 
furrows  will  be  more  easily  done  ;  and  to  expose  the  soil  to  the 
winter's  frost  and  the  summer's  heat.  But  when  the  land  is 
ploughed  in  spring,  for  a  crop  of  oats,  a  strong  soil  cannot  be 
ploughed  with  safety  above  five  or  six  inches. 

Deep  ploughing  is  advisable  on  moorish  cold  soils,  as  it  af- 
fords a  greater  scope  for  the  roots  of  plants  to  procure  nourish- 
-ment,  admits  the  superabundant  moisture  to  subside  from  them, 
and  prevents  the  summer  droughts  from  making  any  injurious 
impressions  on  the  growing  crops ;  for,  on  such  lands,  shallow 
ploughing  exposes  vegetation  to  be  starved  or  drowned  in  wet 
weather,  and  to  be  scorched  or  withered  in  dry. 

7.  It  is  unnecessary  to  plough  deeper,  when  the  seed  is  sown, 
than  where  there  is  a  fair  probability  of  the  different  kinds  of 
plants  sending  their  roots ;  and  as  beans,  clover  and  turnips,  the 
only  tap  rooted  kinds  usually  cultivated  in  this  country,  seldom 
send  their  shoots  above  seven  or  eight  inches  down  into  the  soil, 
and  the  culmiferous  species  not  so  far,  it  is  probable  from  these 
circumstances,  that  from  seven  to  eight  inches  may  be  deep  e- 
nouo-h  for  all  the  purposes  of  ordinary  culture.  Occasionally, 
however,  ploughing  even  ten  inches,  in  theco.ura©of  arotation# 
4anag  tUe  fallow  process,  is  advisable. 


PL«UGH1N6* 


217 


Deep  ploughing  is  not  to  be  recommended,  1 ,  When 
lime  or  marie  has  been  recently  applied,  as  they  have  such  a 
tendency  to  sink,  from  their  weight,  and  the  moisture  they  im- 
bibe :  %  When  turnips  have  been  eaten  off  by  sheep  on  the 
land  where  they  were  grown :  3,  When  grass,  only  two  or 
three  years  old,  more  especially  when  it  has  been  pastured  with 
sheep,  is  broken  up;  because  owing  to  the  extreme  conden- 
sation of  the  soil,  by  the  trampling  of  the  sheep,  a  furrow,  even 
of  a  moderate  depth,  to  appearance,  will  make  the  plough  pen- 
etrate below  the  staple  that  has  had  been  cleared,  by  the  cul- 
ture  given  tluring  the  previous  fallow." 

The  advantages  of  deep  ploughing,  according  to  the  same 
writer,  are,  1,  Bringing  up  new  mould,  which  is  peculiarly 
favorable  to  clover,  turnips,  beans,  and  potatoes  ;  and  indeed 
without  that  advantage,  these  crops  usually  diminish  in  quan- 
tity, quality  and  value.  Deep  ploughing  is  likewise  of  great 
consequence  to  every  species  of  plant,  furnishing  not  only 
more  means  of  nourishment  to  their  roots,  but  above  all  by 
counteracting  the  injurious  consequences  of  either  to  wet,  or 
too  dry  a  season.  This  is  a  most  important  consideration,  for  if 
the  season  be  wet,  there  is  a  greater  depth  ©f  soil  to  absorb  the 
moisture,  so  that  the  plants  are  not  likely  to  have  their  roots 
immersed  in  water  ;  and  in  a  dry  season,  it  is  still  more  useful, 
for  in  the  lower  part  of  the  cultivated  soil,  there  is  thus  a  re- 
servior  of  water  moisture,  which  is  brought  up  to  the  roots  of 
the  plants,  by  the  evaporation  which  the  heat  of  the  sun  oc- 
casions. 3.  By  deep  ploughing,  animal  and  vegetable  ma- 
nures, which  have  such  a  tendency  to  rise  to  the  surface  are 
properly  covered.  This  cannot  be  done  by  shallow  ploughing, 
in  consequence  of  which  much  of  the  value  oi  feuch  manures  is 
lost:  4,  By  deep  ploughing  a  heavier  crop  is  iR.^ed 
than  can  be  got  from  a  shallow  furrow.  An  intelligent  fanricr, 
after  painting  out  that  deep  ploughing  increases  the  etaple  of 
the  soil,  keeps  the  roots  of  the  corn  from  being  injured  by  wet- 
ness, and  also  enables  the  crop  longer  toresiscthe  drorght, 
adds,  I  have  ever  found  deep  ploughing  attended  with  giC£.t 


218  AftRICFLTURAL   ESSAYS. 

crops,  when  1-idges,  shallow  ploughed  in  the  same  field,  wcrt 
but  indifferent,"  which  seems  a  decisive  proof  in  favor  of  deep 
plougtiing. 


Wej 


Weeds  infest  all  kinds  of  land  more  or  less,  and  occasion 
so  much  labor  that  it  is  seldom  perfectly  accomplished.  But 
there  are  varions  considerations  to  mduce  the  farmer  to  do  all 
in  his  power  to  suppress  their  growth.  1.  Whenever  weeds 
are  suffered  to  stand  and  grow  among  cultivated  plants,  the 
crop  wiU  receive  proportionably  the  less  quantity  of  nourish- 
ment from  the  earth:  for  they  require  as  much  nourishment 
from  the  earth  as  better  plants  do.  2.  Their  roots  occupy 
and  fill  many  of  those  interstices  in  the  soil,  which  would  have 
been  occupied  by  the  roots  of  the  cultivated  plants  ;  and  many 
kinds  of  weeds  have  such  a  multitude  of  strong  and  binding 
roots,  that  they  render  the  soil  stiff  and  hard,  and  so  compact 
that  the  roots  of  tender  plants  cannot  extend  themselves  in  it. 
This  bad  quality  is  possessed  in  a  remaikabie  degree  by  the 
quitch  grass,  and  by  some  other  weeds.  3.  Weeds  prevent 
plants  from  tillering,  or  branching  out  from  their  loots,  as 
many  kinds,  and  particularly  the  farinacous,  which  are  the 
most  valuable,  are  inclined  to  do  when  they  have  room.  But 
the  growing  of  a  multitude  of  weeds  among  them,  reduces  them 
to  a  crowded  situation ;  the  consequence  is,  that  they  shoot  up 
only  single  stalks,  by  which  means  the  crop  is  greatly  dimin- 
Bshed.    4.  Weeds  deprive  plants  of  that  free  circulation  of  air 


WEEDS.  219 

about  them  which  is  necessary  to  their  being  in  a  healthy  and 
vigorous  state.  For  this  reason  they  run  up  slender,  and  re- 
main of  a  loose  and  spongy  contexture,  and  bend  down  and 
lodge  by  their  own  weight,  unless  the  weeds  happen  to  be  so 
strong  as  to  hold  ,them  up.  5.  Weeds,  besides  the  general 
evil  of  taking  away  the  food  of  plants,  rob  the  soil,  particular- 
ly of  its  moisture,  and  speedily  reduce  it  to  such  a.  dry  state, 
that  neither  weeds  nor  other  plants  can  receive  from  it  any 
vegetable  food,  for  want  of  that  proportion  of  moisture  which 
is  necessary  to  give  it  fluidity.  Accordingly  it  is  observable 
that  the  abounding  of  weeds  brings  on  an  early  appearance  of 
drought ;  and  some  weeds  of  the  creeping  kind  twine  about 
the  plants  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  their  growth,  and  the 
circulation  of  their  sap.  Others  shade  them,  and  shut  out  the 
direct  influence  of  the  sun  ;  while  others,  the  dodder  in  partic- 
ular, it  is  believed,  draw  their  nourishment  directly  out  of  the 
bodies  of  plants,  by  sticking  their  fibres  into  them,  and  thereby 
cause  them  to  decline. 

So  many  and  great  are  the  mischiefs  done  by  weeds,  that 
when  they  are  suffered  to  grow  unmolested  among  useful 
plants,  whatever  culture  may  have  been  bestowed  to  prepare 
a  crop,  is,  in  a  great  measure  lost,  and  the  seeds  wasted. 

With  a  view  to  investigating  the  best  means  of  subduing, 
or  destroying  weeds,  we  should  consider  them  as  divided  into, 
two  classes ;  those  which  chiefly  infest  lands  that  are  in  til- 
lage, and  those  that  prevail  in  our  grass  land ;  and  how  to 
prevent  the  existence  or  prevalence  of  thera. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  new  dung,  or  such  a^ 
may  cofttain  the  seeds  of  weeds,  it  should  be  applied  to  hoed 
crops,  in  preference  to  others,  in  the  tilling  of  which,  the 
weeds  will  be  destroyed  as  fast  as  they  rise  during  the  summer. 
But  it  is  best  to  avoid  carrying  seeds  on  to  other  tillage  lands 
when  practicable,  while  they  retain  their  germinating  princi- 
ple. No  dung  or  compost  manure  should  therefore  be  applied 
^o  the  soil,  until  it  has  undergone  such  fermentation  i  n  heaps, 


4S20  ^GRI€ULTTTRAL    £S6A"r«» 

as  to  allow  opportunity  to  destroy  the  vegetative  quality  of  all 
the  seeds  that  are  contained  in  it.  Therefore,  it  is  advised 
that  heaps  of  manure,  intended  for  sowed  fields,6hould  be  shov- 
elled over  two  or  three  times  in  a  summer ;  by  which  means, 
most,  or  all  of  the  seeds  contained  in  the  heaps,  will  vegetate 
and  be  destroyed.  But  when  land  is  laid  down  for  grass,  this 
precaution  is  not  necessary,  because  tillage  weeds  will  not 
flourish  60  as  to  do  much  damage  in  grass  lands.  Or  if  low 
ground  hay  has  been  used  by  itself  in  feeding  the  young  part 
•f  the  stock,  as  it  often  is,  the  dung  that  is  made  of  that, 
•hould  be  laid  on  the  dryest  parts  of  the  farm ;  for  should 
the  seeds  sprout  and  come  up,  they  will  not  be  likely  to  pros- 
per,  as  the  soil  does  not  suit  their  nature,  being  mostly  aquatics. 
Marie,  mud,  ashes,  lime,  soot,  sea-weeds,  &c.  having  no  seeds, 
will  not  propagate  weeds,  unless  by  vivifying  latent  seeds  in 
the  soil. 

Another  thing  which  is  indispensably  necessary  to  prevent 
the  abounding  of  weeds,  ia  to  suffer  no  weeds,  either  in  gar- 
dens or  in  tillage  lands,  to  ripen  their  seeds  in  autumn,  and 
scatter  them  out  upon  the  ground. 

Before  the  seeds  of  the  weeds  are  ripened,  the  prudent  hus- 
bandman, if  he  has  neglected  his  duty  thus  far,  will  go  over  his 
grounds  and  destroy  all  the  weeds  that  appear.  If  there  should 
happen  to  be  considerable  quantities  of  them,  they  should  be 
piled  in  heaps,  in  the  borders  of  the  fields,  and  a  little  earth 
throwti  on  them ;  in  which  situation  they  will  ferment  and  pu- 
trify,  and  become  good  heaps  of  manure  the  succeeding  year. 

The  objection  to  the  labor  of  doing'  this,  is  answered  by  the 
obnsideration,  that  it  will  save  them  more  labor  in  future,  in 
subduing  the  weeds,  after  the  ground  is  filled' with  them,  be- 
sides procuring  them  the  advantage  of  having  much  better 
crops. 

Another  preventative  of  the  increase  of  weeds,  is  burning 
the  stubble  as  it  stands  after  reaping.  On  land  that  isdesign- 
ad  to  be  sowed  the  next  year,  this^  good  husbandry.     For  it 


^"ill  not  only  destroy  so  many  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  as  to  pre- 
vent the  ensuing  crop  from  being  weedy, as  it  otherwise  would 
be,  but  will  also  destroy  many  insects,  clean  the  ground,  and 
render  it  more  St  for  the  operations  of  tillage  ;  besides  the  soil 
will  be  fertilized  by  the  ashes  of  the  stubble. 

But  to  prevent  the  increase  of  weeds,  as  well  as  for  other 
good  purposes,  it  is  not  best  that  two  broad  cast  sowed  crops, 
when  it  can  be  otherwise  ordered,  should  succeed  each  other. 
When  a  hoed  crop  is  well  tilled  every  other  year,  the  weeds 
are  not  wont  to  increase  in  such  a  degree  as  to  be  very  trou- 
blesome. 

Another  precaution,  and  which  has  not  been  sufficiently  at- 
tended to,  is  to  avoid  sowing  the  seeds  of  weeds  with  grain  and 
•other  crops. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  precautions  that  may  be  used,  how- 
ever, s«me  weed  seed  may  be  wafted  by  the  winds  from  other 
fields,  and  will  he  found  in  the  farmer's  enclosures ;  he  should, 
therefore,  practice  the  most  effectual  methods  of  subduing 
them. 

Oae  way  to  effect  this  is  by  summer  fallowing,  alternately 
ploughing  and  harrowing  the  ground  in  dry  weather,  as  often 
as  the  weeds  appear  in  plenty  on  the  surface.  By  this  opera- 
tion a  large  quantity  of  weeds  is  destroyed  and  converted  into 
manure,  and  the  seeds  of  another  crop  so  exposed  that  they 
will  spring  up,  and  at  the  next  stirring  of  the  soil  be  destroyed. 
If  these  operations  are  continued  until  no  more  weeds  arise,  it 
may  be  concluded  the  ground  is  in  good  order  for  a  crop,  and 
thereby  too,  made  more  fertile. 

But  the  modern  improvement  of  land,  by  substituting  the 
system  of  a  rotation  of  crops,  for  the  summer  fallow,  seems  to 
be  well  calculated  to  prevent  the  prevalence  of  weeds,  as  well 
as  to  preserve  and  increase  the  productive  powers  of  the  e^ii* 

low.^*^  *^^*J  ®o  rotation  of  crops  as  a  snbrtitute  fof  summer  M^ 

^2 


•gafe  AeRICBLTURAL   ESSAY*. 

In  that  system  of  agricultural  operations,  the  hoed  crops,  as 
corn,  potatoes,  &c.  or  peas  sowed  thick,  so  as  to  form  a  close 
<;over  to  the  surface,  will  keep  the  weeds  under,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent their  going  to  seed  ;  until  the  seed  of  a  winter  or  spring 
crop  of  grain  follows,  and  the  tillage  land  laid  down  to  grass 
with  clean  grass  seed.  A  strong  sward  will  then  be  formed, 
thro'  which  the  tender  kinds  of  annual  weeds  will  not  penetrate, 
of  which  sort  those  generally  are  that  are  found  in  land  that  is 
tilled.  It  is  said  that  even  the  quitch  grass,  one  of  the  most 
noxious  of  all  weeds,  is  by  this  means  either  destroyed  or  ren- 
dered harmless ;  for  if  it  even  flourishes  in  grass  ground  it 
makes  good  hay. 

The  limits  of  these  short  essays  will  not  admit  of  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  particular  weeds  that  infest  our  lands. 

The  weed-called  the  Canada  thistle,  which  is  .perhaps  most 
prevalent  in  the  northern  parts  of  New-England  and  New- 
York,  flourishes  in  close  and  stiff"  soils ;  but  does  not  prevail 
often  in  those  which  are  dry  and  gravelly,  or  sandy.  In  lands 
~which  have  been  closely  pastured  for  a  number  of  successive 
years,  it  will  nearly  disappear ;  and  in  mowing  grounds  its 
growth  will  be  constantly  retarded,  where  the  grasses  grow 
uxuriantly. 

Pasturing,  cultivating  tall  grasses,  and  Tceeping  the  lands 
highly  manured,  will  be  found  among  the  most  effectual  meth- 
ods of  getting  rid  of  this  thistle,  except  perhaps,  the  culture  of 
hoed  crops.  If  they  are  not  otherwise  destroyed,  they  should 
be  cut  up  in  autumn,  about  the  beginning  of  September,  and 
iburnt  before  they  have  scattered  their  seed. 

1X  is  said  by  Mr.  Deane,  that  "common  thistles,  cut  an  inch 
above  the  ground,  will  not  be  so  difficult  to  subdue,  as  those  cut 
at  the  same  time  with  the  hoe,  and  below  the  surface.  In  the 
-former  case  the  remaining  stub  of  the  thistle  gets  filled  with 
water,  which  rots  and  destroys  the  plant.  This  mode  of  cut- 
ikng  may  operate  with  similar  efficacy  on  the  Canada  thistle* 


WEEDS.  1^8 

But  is  signifies  little  for  one  farmer  to  destroy  the  thistles  in 
his  ground  so  long  as  they  are  suffered  to  flourish  in  contigu- 
ous fields  ;  because  the  seeds  are  wafted  in  the  air  from  field  to 
field,  to  a  considerable  distance.  For  this  reason  it  is,  that  ia 
France,  a  man  may  sue  his  neighbor  for  neglecting  to  thistle 
his  ground  in  the  proper  season  ;  or  may  employ  people  to  do  it 
€it  his  expence. 

The  great  importance  of  keeping  tillage  lands  clear  of  weeds' 
was  probably  one  great  reason  which  led  to  the  introduction  of 
the  drill  husbandry  among  the  European  farmers ;  asby  leaving 
the  grain  very  thin  between  the  drill  rows  of  culmiferous  crops, 
as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  &c.  a  passage  between  the  drill  beds  is 
tnereby  provided,  by  which  more  convenient  access  is  had  to 
the  grain  for  the  purposes  of  clearing  the  weeds  from  thera. 

The  weeding  of  culmiferous  crops,  when  sown  in  the  broad 
-cast  way,  is  much  practiced  in  Europe,  and  great  additions 
are  believed  to  be  thereby  gained  to  the  crop. 


^'^  agricl&ltural   essays. 

Economy  of    Saving  Straw. 

Notwithstanding  the  English  farmers  have  hitherto  so 
much  exceeded  the  American,  in  the  business  of  saving  and 
preparing  compost  manure,  the  following  remarks  from  the 
Agricultural  EncyclopsBdia  may  convint^e  us  of  the  great  value 
of  that  part  of  husbandry,  in  the  estimation  of  the  agricultural- 
ists in  England,  and  that  the  inattention  to  1  hat  business,  was, 
even  there,  chargeable  as  a  great  defect  in  their  rural  econ* 
omy. 

"As  straw  is  the  basis  of  manure,  it  might  be  expected  that 
every  good  husbandman  would  bestow  the  most  sedulous  atten- 
tion»  upon  the  shearing  or  cutting  his  crop,  so  that  the  great- 
est possible  quantity  of  the  raw  material  may  be  procured. 
Very  different,  however,  is  the  conduct  of  farmers  in  general ; 
^s  over  one  half  of  Brftain,  it  may  be  safely  estimated,  that  at 
least  one  fourth  of  the  straw  is  left  in  the  field,  where  its 
strength  is  wasted  and  dissipated  by  the  rains  and  storms  that 
commonly  prevail  at  the  conclusion  of  Autumn. 

While  it  is  recommended,  that  the  crop  should  be  cut  low, 
in  order  that  materials  for  making  manure  may  be  increased, 
that  accuracy  is  not  contended  for  that  cannot  be  repaid  by  the 
benefit  to  be  derived  from  the-extra  care  that  might  be  bestow- 
ed in  cuttmg  it  with  view  to  that  object.  By  running  the 
sickle  upon  the  ground,  drawing  a  level  stroke,  and  gathering 
no  .-nore  into  the  hand  than  can  be  fairly  cut,  all  the  advantages 
of  low  shearing  are  obtained  at  a  very  trifling  increase  of  ex- 
pence.  By  a  steady  perseverance  in  this  practice,  from  on^ 
to  two  tons  of  manure  per  acre,  may  be  annually  gained 
more  than  is  procured  in  the  common  mode  of  cutting  the 
straw,  especially  where  the  crops  are  good.  This  annual 
increase  must  operate  powerfully  upon  the  improvement  of 
the  country. 


EGONOMT    OF    SAVING    STRAW. 


225 


The  benefit  to  be  derived  from  saving  straw  as  food  for 
eattle  of  every  description,  presents  to  the  farmer  a  sufficient 
inducement  to  save  all  he  can  by  any  prudent  measures,  even 
if  after  being  thus  appropriated  it  was  of  no  farther  use,  as  a 
manure.  It  has  been  found  from  repeated  experiments,  that 
neat  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep  can  be  kept  as  well  on  wheat  or 
rye  straw  with  a  very  little  oil  meal,  or  that  of  almost  any 
kind  of  grain  as  upon  good  hay,  the  value  of  which  has  gener- 
ally been  considered  much  less,  than  the  quantity  of  hay  usual- 
ly thought  necessary  ;  and  after  it  has  beea  used  as  food  for 
cattle,  it  is  prepared  in  the  best  manner  possible  for  a  rich  and 
efficacious  manure. 

It  is  believed  that  the  straw  which  is  left  to  waste  in  the 
field  after  harvest,  by  evaporation,  and  also  that  which  is  spoil- 
ed for  cattle's  food,  from  the  careless  manner  in  which  it  is 
given  to  them,  if  it  were  saved  and  converted  into  manure  after 
having  first  been  made  conducive  to  their  support,  it  would  be 
an  improvement  in  our  system  of  domestic  economy,  which 
would  increase  the  agricultural  resources  of  our  own  coun- 
try." 

It  should  be  considered,  that  straw,  as  a  constituent  of  com- 
post manure,  merits  a  different  consideration  from  any  other, 
except  that  of  Indian  corn  stalks,  in  as  much  as  the  farmer 
from  necessity  must  provide  large  quantities  of  this  article  as 
an  appendage  to  his  bread  stuff.  It  ?is  therefore,  obviously  a 
dictate  of  wisdom  to  turn  it  to  the  best  account  in  his  agricul- 
tural operations.'  After  taking  from  it  the  seed,  whatever  sub- 
stance he  can  give  to  his  live  stock  from  it,  before  it  is  appro- 
priated as  a  manure,  is  an  object  which  claims  from  the  farm- 
er the  most  sedulous  attention.  The  remarks  relating  to 
straw,  in  the  essay  on  manures,  relate  to  the  mode  of  applying 
it  for  that  object  in  its  crude  state  ;  but  in  no  way  can  it  be 
Tendered  so  valuable  a  manure,  as  that  of  first  feeding  it  to  caU 
tie.  The  dry  fibrious  substances  in  straw,  exceed  those  iii 
gooa  hay,  in  proportion  to  the  respective  nutrativc  allio«i^l 


^26 


AGRICULTUKAL    ESSAYS. 


they  contain.  F<?r  that  reason,  probably,  cattle  prefer  the  for- 
mer, when  both  are  offered  thern.  But  this  furnishes  no  con- 
clusive evidence  against  the  value  of  straw,  any  more  than 
the  preference  which  most  men  might  have  to  the  most  deli- 
cious and  expensive  food,  above  that  of  the  simple  potato, 
when  both  were  offered  on  equal  terms,  would  furnish  against 
the  value  of  that  root.  It  is  not  perhaps,  well  ascertained, 
that  well  saved  straw,  free  from  rust  or  any  other  disease, 
does  not  contain  as  much  nutrative  aliment  as  good  hay,  in 
proportion  to  the  fibrous  substances  v,?ith  which  they  are  res- 
piectively  coated. 

While  cattle  are  kept  on  straw,  they  should  have  no  hay 
given  them,  and  it  should  be  placed  in  racks  or  mangers,  to 
prevent  their  trampling  it  under  their  feet ;  and  with  a  little 
oil  meal,  or  that  of  any  other  kind  of  grain,  or  succulent  food, 
as  potatoes,  turnigs,  or  carrots,  they  may  be  kept  well,  where 
the  whole  experice  of  their  keeping,  taking  into  consideration 
the  value  of  seed  taken  from  your  straw,  would  not  exceed 
that  of  hay.  It  may  answer  a  better  purpose  when  fed  to 
sheep,  to  have  it  cut.  and  after  being  wet,  and  mixed  with  a 
little  of  some  kind  of  meal,  such  as  the  farmer  may  have  at 
hand. 

In  a  report  of  the  Berkshire  agricultural  society,  mention  is 
made  of  a  straw  cutter,  with  which  it  is  stated,  that  two  men, 
the  one  to  feed  and  the  other  to  turn,  will  cut  at  the  rate  of 
sixty  bushels  of  chopped  straw  in  an  hour. 

But  it  is  well  attested  by  experiment,  that  either  neat  cattle 
or  horses  will  eat  straw  without  cutting ;  when  fed  with  that  or 
any  other  kind  of  grain  alternately,  in  moderate  quantities, 
having  no  hay  ;  and  may  be  kept  in  good  plight  on  such  food, 
irequiring  at  the  same  time  hut  little  water. 


ttYP9UM,    OR    ?LASr£R    OF    PARIS.  227 

Gypsum,  or  Plaster  of  Paris. 

It  will  be  seen  from  various  experiments,  relative  to  the  ap- 
plication of  plaster  as  a  manure,  that  very  different  views  have 
been  had  respecting  the  best  mode  of  rendering  it  most  effica- 
cious. Sir  Humphrey  Davy  observes,  that  the  reason  why 
gypsum  is  not  generally  efficacious,  is  probably  because  that 
most  cultivated  soils  contain  it  in  sufficient  quantities  for  the 
use  of  the  grasses.  That  in  the  common  course  of  cultivation 
gypsum  is  furnished  in  the  manure  ;  for  it  is  contained  in  sta- 
ble dung,  and  in  the  dung  of  cattle  fed  on  grass  ;  and  it  is  not 
taken  up  in  corn  crops,  or  crops  of  peas  and  beans,  and  in  very 
small  quanties  in  turnip  crops  ;  but  when  lands  are  exclusive- 
ly devoted  to  pasturage  or  hay,  it  will  be  continually  consumed. 
He  further  observes,  that  Lord  Dundas  informed  him,  that 
Kaving  tried  gypsum  without  any  benefit,  on  two  of  his  estates 
in  Yorkshire,  he  was  induced  to  have  the  soil  examined  for 
gypsum,  and  this  substance,  was  found  in  both  the  soils.^ 

Col.  Taylor,  in  answer  to  some  questions  by  Mr.  Jeffreys, 
respecting  the  nature  and  effects  of  gypsum,  observes,  that  he 
sows  from  three  pecks  to  one  bushel  of  piaster  upon  an  acre; 
that  It  succeeded  upon  all  soils  to  v^'hich  he  had  applied  it ;  those 
requiring  to  be  drained  excepted.  Sown  on  clover  in  the 
spring,  it  benefits  it  considerably  ;  that  used  in  any  oHier  mode, 
he  ploughed  it  in.  But  I  have,  says  he,  even  discontinued  the 
first  practice,  from  observing  that  when  plaster  is  sown  and 
ploughed  in  with  wheat  in  the  fail,  a  top  dressing  to  the  sub- 
sequent clover  is  of  little  or  no  use  ;  and  from  thinking  that  the 
effect  of  the  plaster  sooner  ceases,  as  a  top  dressing,  than 
when  ploughed  in.  That  the  best  ways  of  using  it  are  in  the 
spring,  upon  the  long  manure  of  the  preceding  winter,  to  be 
ploughed  in  with  it  upon  well  covered  fields,  to  be  sown  imme- 
diately before  they  are  fallowed.     In  rolling  it  very  wet,  vrith 

^ZUc  Elements  of  Ajricaltural  Chemistry^  p.  224, 225.  Phil.ed. 


2S8  AGRlCCLtURAL    ESSAYS. 

8Ped  corn,  bushel  to  bushel,  and  in  mixing  it  wiih  seed  wheat 
so  moist  as  to  let  the  wheat  divide  in  sowiKg,  in  such  a  quanti- 
ty as  that  the  land  shall  receive  not  less  than  three  pecks  to 
the  acre.  The  latter  is  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  the  succeeaing 
clover.  The  wheat  is  benefited  in  a  very  small  degree,  but  it 
prevents  embezzlement  of  the  seed.  He  thinks  it  a  valuable 
ally  of,  but  by  no  means  a  substitute  for,  manure.  That  there 
should  be  intervals  of  two,  three,  or  four  years  between  apply- 
ing it  to  the  same  land.  That  its  effect  is  graduated  by  the 
quantity  of  vegetable  matter  upon  which  it  is  sown.  That 
upon  close  grazed  land  it  does  little  good  at  first,'and  repeated, 
would  become  pernicious ;  and  that  it  must  be  united  with 
long  manure  of  the  winter,  or  the  ungrazed  vegetable  cover 
produced  in  the  summer.  That  all  crops  are  ultimately  im*- 
proved  by  its  impro\^ng  the  soil,  even  when  its  effects  are  not 
immediately  visible,  but  he  does  not  recommend  it  as  a  top 
dressing,  except  for  clover.  M.  Canolle,  a  French  writer,  ob- 
serves, that  plaster,  acting,  or  operating  chiefly  on  the  absorb- 
ant  sys/em  of  plants,  its  effects  are  not  like  those  of  manures 
buried  in  the  soil,  which  act  principally  on  the  roots.  The 
latter,  according  to  their  particular  nature,  divide,  soften,  en- 
rich, warm,  or  stiffen  the  soils  with  which  they  are  mixed. 
The  quantity  of  plaster,  spread  upon  the  land,  is  so  trifling,  that 
it  can  have  little  effect  on  the  soil.  I  speak,  says  he,  from  ex- 
perience. Plaster  buried  in  the  earth  where  sain  foin  has  been 
sown,  has  produced  no  visible  alteration;  whilst  the  same 
quantity  of  plaster  spread  over  the  same  surface  of  sain  foin, 
has  produced  the  most  beautiful  vegetation.  From  this  expe- 
rience, so  uniform  in  the  application  of  plaster,  I  am  led  to  be- 
lieve, that  one  must  consult  as  well  the  nature  jf  the  soil,  as 
the  kinds  of  plants  to  which  we  apply  plaster.  Thus  whatever 
may  be  the  soil  on  which  clover,  lucerne,  and  sain  foin  natur- 
ally flourish  vigorously,  or  with  that  vigor  which  encourages 
us  to  apply  manure,  there  is  no  risque  in  trying  plaster. 

In  an  essay  on  manures,  which  took  the  premiumin  Albany, 
in  1819  some  remarks    were  made  on  the  proper  manner  of 


aVPSUM,    OR    PLASTER    PARI3.  239 

applyiilg  gypsum  as  a  manure  for  a  crop  of  winter  grain,  in 
which,  it  is  observed,  that  this  manure,  when  applied  to  suck 
crops  when  sown,  or  in  the  spring  following,  has  scarcely  any 
preceptible  effect  in  increasing  their  growth.  In  order,  there- 
fore, to  render  the  manure  profitable,in  applications  of  this  kind, 
the  ground  must  be  enriched  with  gypsum,  previous  to  its  be- 
ing broken  up,  preparatory  for  what  we  call  a  summer  fallowing 
for  the  crops  in  question.  If,  for  instance,  a  field  is  intended  to 
be  broken  up,  say  by  the  middle  of  June,  for  the  purpose  of  be- 
ing sown  with  winter  grain  in  the  fall,  this  manure  is  to  be 
strewn  over  the  sward  early  in  the  spring,  or  perhaps  in  the 
fall  preceding ;  at  all  events,  a  sufficient  length  of  time  pre- 
vious, for  tlie  manure  to  exhibit  its  effect  on  the  land.  This 
is  to  be  known  by  a  growth  of  white  clover  starting  up,  and 
the  sward  exhibiting  Eufine  green  appearance  ;  and  as  soon  as 
this  change  is  effected  in  the  appearance  of  the  sward,  it  may 
be  turned  over  for  a  crop  of  winter  grain. 

I  have  been  more  particular  on  the  subject  of  gypsum,  be- 
cause it  is  become  a  very  important  item  in  the  expence  of  ag- 
ricultural operations,  which  is  often  lost  to  the  farmer  for 
want  of  complete  knowledge  of  its  proper  use  and  application, 
and  also  fox  the  purpose  of  convincing  the  farmer  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  attending  to  the  information  derived  from  the  expe- 
riments of  others,  as  well  as  from  philosophical  investigations. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  its  inefficiency,  often  attributed  to  a 
defect  in  gypsum,  may  be  owing  to  the  peculiar  state  of  the 
6oil  to  which  it  is  applied,  or  to  the  mode  of  its  application. 
Many  of  the  most  prevalent  opinions  respecting  its  efficient  a- 
gency,  as  amanure,  have  proved  fallacious,  both  by  experiment 
and  chemical  facts. 


230  AGRICULTURAL   ESSAYS. 


Remarks  on  tite  Effects  of  different  Shades  on 
Vegetation. 

As  trees  are  placed  either  naturally  or  artificially  around  the 
borders  of  fields  appropriated  to  tillage,  it  is  important  that  the 
farmer  should  be  apprised  of  the  different  effects  which  the 
shades  of  different  trees  may  have  on  certain  plants.  The  in- 
formation on  this  subject  is  derived  from  the  certificate  of  Mr. 
Livingston,  of  New- York. 

I  planted  maize,  says  he,  on  the  west  side  of  a  young  wood, 
consisting  of  oaks,  poplars,  a  few  chesnuts,  and  a  large  mulber- 
ry somewhat  advanced  into  the  field.  The  shade  made  by  the 
rising  sun  extended  nearly  across  the  field,  and  was  not  entire- 
ly off  until  about  ten  o'clock.  I  remarked,  that  as  far  as  the 
shade  of  the  chesnat  reached,  the  corn  was  extremely  injured; 
it  was  yellow  and  small.  The  conical  shape  of  the  morning- 
shade,  from  particular  trees,  might  be  traced  a  considerable 
extent,  in  the  sickly  appearance  of  the  plants.  The  black  oaks 
were  likewise  injurious,  but  less  so  than  the  chesnuts :  the 
poplars,  very  little  eo.  Near  the  mulberry  tree  the  corn  was 
covered  by  its  shade  for  a  very  long  time  every  morning,  and 
though  not  so  large  as  that  which  had  more  sun,  maintained  a 
healthy  appearance. 

He  further  remarks,  that  the  shade  of  the  black  oak  is  partic- 
ularly hurtful  to  the  growth  of  wheat :  that  of  the  locust  is,  on 
the  contrary,  beneficial  to  grass  grounds :  and  that  of  the  su- 
gar maple  does  but  very  little  injury  to  the  growth  of  grain, 
and  none 'to  grass. 

From  the  observations  respecting  the  effects  of  the  shades  of 
the  sugar  maple,  the  mulberry,  and  the  locust,  it  might  be  ex- 
pedient to  piantifiose  trees  around  some  fields,  designed  for 
pasture,  grain,  or  meadow  ;  especially  the  locust,  which,  in  the 
essay  on  the  management  of  wood  land,  is  described  to  be  ve- 


EPl'ECTS    O^    SHADES    ON    VEGETATION.  231 

ry  Valuable  for  many  mechanical  purposes,  which  require  so- 
lidity and  durability.  It  will  propogate  itself,  too,  in  the  most 
barren  places,  where  the  soil  is  even  so  light  as  to  be  blown  a- 
way  by  the  winds.  By  sheltering  such  places,  and  dropping 
its  leaves  on  thera,  it  causes  a  sward  to  grow  over  them,  and 
grass  to  grow  upon  them.  It  is,  however,  objected  by  some, 
that  it  is  not  advisable  to  plant  the  locust  on  the  borders  of 
fields,  on  account  of  their  spreading  too  much,  by  scattering 
their  leaves,  unless  on  those  which  are  most  barren.  This  ob- 
jection, however,  it  would  seem,  might  be  obviated,  when  the 
field  to  be  enclosed  by  the  locust  was  often  to  be  appropriated 
to  the  purposes  of  tillage,  especially  to  the  culture  of  the  hoe, 
by  which  every  superfluous  plant  may  be  suppressed. 

It  is  of  importance  to  the  ^rmer,  when' making  a  new  settle- 
ment, to  ascertain,  by  observation,  the  effects  of  the  various 
forest  trees,  on  vegetation,  that  he  may  be  able  to  decide  cor- 
rectly respecting  what  ones  are  most  proper  to  be  left  stand- 
ing on  the  borders  of  his  fields. 

In  some  of  the  best  cultivated  parts  of  Europe,  as  well  as  A- 
merica,  the  border  of  the  field  adjoining  the  highway,  is  often 
found  ornamented  with  either  a  natural  or  artificial  row  of 
trees,  such  as  are  found  least  injurious  to  vegetation  ;  and 
w-hich  are  often,  too,  appropriated  as  important  constituents  of 
the  fence. 

It  is  believed  that  the  shades  of  many  other  trees,  that  have' 
not  been  mentioned  in  this  essay,  will  be  found  to  be  but  little 
injurious  to  many  of  our  valuable  plants.- 

So  far  as  this  inconvenience  can  be  avoided,  it  is  h(i)ped  the 
disposition  for  the  destruction  of  our  trees  generally,  will  be 
less  prevalent.  Monsieur  Mihaux,  in  his  work  on  the  forest 
trees  of  North  America,  in  stating  the  causes  which  induced  so 
general  a  destruction  of  them  in  this  country,  observes  :  "The 
cost  and  expense  of  clearing  our  lands,  compared  with  their 
value  after  they  were  cleared,  and  the  difficulty  of  eradicating 
completely  the  after  growth,,  were  so  great,  and  the  forests 


232  AGRICULfUKAL    ESSAYS. 

themselves  appeared  so  vast  in  proportion  to  the  probable  de- 
mand for  fuel,  ^nd  wood  for  building,  and  other  purposes,  that 
no  man  dreampt  that  the  day  would  arrive  when  their  descend- 
ants  might  regret  the  improvidence  of  their  ancestors.  Hence 
there  seems  to  have  been  a  sort  of  hatred,  an  indescribable  pre- 
jndice  against  trees,  especially  around  their  dwellings." 

The  above  causes,  perhaps,  can  alone  account  for  the  fact, 
Ihat  in  our  climate,  where  the  summer  months  are  so  hot,  com- 
l^ared  with  the  climate  of  Europe,  and  where  the  clearness  of 
the  sky  seems  to  render  shade  so  much  more  important,  we 
find  such  a  general  warfare  waged  upon  trees,  in  the  vicinity 
of  dwelling  houses,  and  about  fields,  where  they  might  havei 
remained  without  any  detriment  to  plants. 


ADVAWTAeES    OF   fiXtERIMENTS.  ^^ 


Advantages    of  Experimentji, 

It  would  greatly  advance  the  farming  interest,  if  more  ex* 
periments  were  made  in  our  country,  where  the  science  of  ag" 
riculture  is  yet  in  its  infancy.  We  ought  not  to  rely  too 
much  upon  the  experiment's  made  in  other  countries,  as  proofe 
of  the  utility  of  one  mode  of  culture  in  preference  to  another, 
in  this  country.  Therefore,  we  should  not  trust  to  the  exper- 
iments of  Europeans,  but  make  experiments  for  ourselves. 
Till  this  is  done  we  are  not  to  expect  improvements  in  husban- 
dry will  rapidly  progress.  It  is  true,  there  is  some  hazard 
attending  new  experiments.  Therefore  farmers  in  indigent 
circumstances,  should  venture  with  caution  on  experiments, 
except  on  a  small  scale  ;  as  the  failure  of  a  year's  crop  migh^ 
greatly  embarrass  them.  They  might,  however,  compare  oaie 
crop  with  another,  estimating  the  cost  expended  in  the  culture 
of  each,  and  of  one  course  of  crops  with  another,  as  also  the 
different  effect  of  manures  on  the  same,  or  different  soils;  and 
by  this  means  they  may  find  which  methods  are  preferable,  by 
&  little  attention,  without  any  risque.  It  is  necessary  to  learn 
what  practices  should  be  continued,  as  well  as  what  to  adopt, 
or  bring  into  use.  Gentlemen  who  possess  large  estates  may 
sustain  considerable  losses  without  suffering  material  incon- 
venience from  it,  should  they  fail  of  success.  Thf>y  should,, 
therefore,  from  principles  of  patriotism,  hazard  experiments, 
for  there  can  be  no  reason  to  doubt  but  that  our  husbandry 
may  admit  of  many  very  important  improvements. 

The  making  of  experiments,  would  not  only  tend  to  the  im- 
provement of  our  agricultural  science,  but  would  prove  a  sourcer 
of  interesting  and  laudable  amusement  to  persons  who  have 
leisure,  and  are  in  a  condition  to  make  them. 

Trench  ploughing,whicfe  has  not  been  much  practiced  m  this 
country,  should  be  tried  by  those  who  have  deep  soili,  clear  of 


234  ASRICFtTURAL     ESSAYS. 

rocks  and  other  obstacles.  Trials  should  be  made  of  the  advan- 
tages which  might  result  from  ploughing  flat  land  into  ridges  ; 
and  whether'ridge  ploughing  will  not  have  a  tendency  to  secure 
grain  from  destruction  by  winter  frosts.  Attempts  should  also 
be  more  extensively  made,  to  raise  winter  wheat,  which  is 
the  most  valuable  of  all  grain ;  also  to  obviate  by  culture,  if 
possible,  the  causes  of  the  failure  of  wheat  crops  on  our  flat, 
deep,  rich  soils,  on  which  it  is  well  known,  attempts  to  ra  se 
wheat,  successfully,  have  hitherto  proved  abortive,  and 
generally  been  abandoned.  To  discover  also  the  best  steeps 
for  grain  and  other  seeds,  to  quicken  vegetation  and  secure 
them  against  smut  and  insects.  What  also  may  be  the  best 
quantities  of  seed  for  sowing  in  different  soils  ;  and  the  pecu- 
liar advantages  which  might  result  from  sowing  different  seeds 
with  a  drill.  Also  whether  dramed  swamps  are  not  the  most 
profitable  lands,  or  what  crops  can  be  best  raised  upon  them : 
how  lime  as  a  manure  will  answer  in  our  hot  summers,  and  on 
what  kind  of  soil  it  is  most  profitable. 

In  making  experiments,  care  should  be  taken  that  we  do  not 
draw  conclusions  too  hastily.  We  ought  seldom  to  do  it  from 
a  single  trial.  For  a  certain  practice  may  answer  well  at  one 
time,  owing  to  the  peculiarity  of  the  season,  or  some  unknown 
cause,  which  would  not  have  the  same  operation  at  another 
time.  Too  much  ^confidence  in  smgle  experiments,  might 
embarrass  ormislead,  rather  than  increase  useful  agricultural 
science. 

If  experiments  are  intended  to  make  improvements,  they 
should  be  carefully  recoided.  For  want  of  such  records,  much 
useful  knowledge  is  continually  lost.  Though  many  individu- 
als have  derived  advantages  to  themselves  from  experiments, 
but  few  have  recorded  them.  Even  those  who  make  experi- 
ments are  liable  to  forget  them,  so  as  to  give  incorrect  repre- 
sentations of  them  when  they  attempt  to  relate  them. 

Many  useful  discoveries  therefore  often  die  with  those  who 
make  them.     To  prevent  these  evils,  either  voluntary  opera^ 


ADVANTAGES  OF  EXPERIMENTS.  235 

tions  of  individuals,  or  a  board  of  agriculture  should  be  formed 
in  every  well  regulatea  conimuiyty,  to  collect  and  record  for 
the  benefit  of  the  present  generation,  and  for  posterity,  useful 
and  important  agricultural  information. 


286'  AGRICULTURAL   iy«3AtB 


ACCOUNT  OF  A  COTTAGER'S  CULTIVATIOIf. 


Showing    how  great  protp-its  may  be  obtained    from 
a  small  piece  of  land. 

There  is  in  the  United  States,  and  indeed  in  every  civilized 
country  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge,  a  large  class  of  cit- 
izens who  are  greatly  dependant  for  their  support  on  the  pro- 
duce of  small  parcels  of  land,  perhaps  one  or  two  acres. 

It  has  been  said  that  an  ancient  Roman  understood  so  well 
the  art  of  cultivating  the  soil,  that  he  could  support  his  family 
upon  the  produce  of  one  acre  of  ground.     It  may  be  expected 
that  in  the  United  States,  that  classi  of  citizens  whose  condition 
will  render  them  dependant  on  the  produce  of  a  very  small 
piece  of    land   for  their  subsisterice,   will  hereafter  be  very 
Numerous.     It  may  therefore  be  truly  said,  that  the  science 
which  enables  us  to  acquire  the  greatest  quantity  of  useful  veg- 
etables from  a  small  piece  of  ground,  is  of  most  importance  to 
that  class  of  our  citizens  to  whom  we  shall  be  greatly  indebted 
for  our  physical  strength.    Those  of  that  description,  who 
would  better  their  condition,  and  increase  their  comforts,  may 
derive  essential  benefits  fiom  the  following  account  of  a  cotta- 
ger's cultivation,  in  Shrepshire,  England  j   published  by  Sir 
William  Pultney,  Bart.  May,  1805. 

Within  two  and  a  half  miles  of  Shrewsbury,  a  cottager 
whose  name  is  Richard  Millward,  has  a  house,  and  adjoining  to 


«OTTAGI,R*S    CULTIVATION.  237 

it,  a  garden  and  land ;  making  about  one  acre  and  one  six- 
teenth of  an  acre,  including  the  garden.  He  is  a  collier:  and 
the  management  of  the  ground  is  in  a  great  measure  left  to  his 
wife.  The  soil  was  a  thin  covering  of  about  three  or  four  inch- 
es of  strong  loam,  over  a  clay  impregnated  with  iron,  and  con- 
sidered as  the  worst  soil  They  pay  three  shillings  sterling  of 
yearly  rent  for  the  house  and  land.  It  was  leased  to  thegj 
thirty-eight  years  ago,  for  three  lives,  one  of  which  is  dead. 

The  wife  has  managed  the  ground  in  a  particular  manner, 
for  thirteen  years,  w-ith  potatoes  and  wheat,  chiefly  by  her«wn 
labor ;  and  in  a  way  which  has  yielded  good  crops,  fully  equal 
or  rather  superior  to  the  produce  of  the  neighboring  farms,  and 
with  little  or  no  expense. 

The  potato  and  the  wheat  land  (exclusive  of  the  garden) 
contains  sixty-four  digging  poles  of  land,  (eighty  yards  square 
to  the  pole,  and  seventy-five  of  which  make  an  acre,)  and  is  di- 
rided  into  two  parts.  One  of  the  divisions  she  plants  alternate- 
ly wuth  potatoes,  and  the  other  is  sown  with  wheat.  On  the 
wheat  stubble  she  plants  potatoes  in  rows  ;  and  sows  wheat  on 
the  potato  ground.  She  puts  dung  in  the  bottom  of  the  rows 
where  she  plants  potatoes ;  but  uses  no  dung  for  the  wheat. 
And  she  has  repeate^.  this  succession  for  nearly  thirteen  years; 
but  with  better  success  and  more  economy,  during  the  last  six 
or  seven  years. 

She  provides  manure,  by  keeping-  a  pig,  and  by  collecting  all 
the  manure  she  can  from  her  house,  and  by  mixing  it  with  the 
scrapings  ofc  the  roads,  &c.  She  forms  it  into  a  heap,  and 
^  ns  itj  before  she  puts  it  on  her  ground  for  potatoes. 


238  AGRICULTURAL    ESS  ATS. 

The  ground  is. dug  for  potatoes,  in  the  months  of  March  and 
April,  to  the  depth  of  about  nine  inches.  (This  digging  would 
cost  sixpence  per  pole,  if  hired.)  After  putting  in  the  dung,  the 
potatoes  are  planted  in  rows,  about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches 
distant.  The  sets  are  placed  about  four  or  five  inches  apart  in 
the  rows. 

When  the  potatoes  conie  above  the  ground,  the  weeds  are 
destroyed  by  the  hoe ;  and  then  laid  up  on  both  sides  to  the 
shoots.  And  this  is  repeated  from  time  to  time,  as  the  seasons 
require.       Hand  weeding  is  also  used,  when  necessary. 

In  the  month  of  October,  when  the  potatoes  are  ripC;  she 
takes  off  all  the  stalks,  (or  haulm)  of  the  potato,  which  she  se- 
cures, to  produce  manure,  by  means  of  their  pig.  She  now 
goes  over  the  whole  with  a  rake,  an-d  takes  off  all  the  weeds  ; 
and  before  taking  up  the  potatoes,  she  sows  her  wheat  on  as 
much  ground  as  she  can  clear  of  potatoes  that  day.  They  are 
taken  up  with  a  three-pronged  fork  ;  in  which  her  husband  ass- 
ists :  and  by  the  same  operation,  the  wheat  is  covered  deep. 
She  leaves  it  quite  rough ;  and  the  frost  mellows  the  earth,  and 
by  the  earth  falling  down,  it  adds  much  strength  and  vigor  to 
the  wheat  plants  in  spring.  Her  crops  of  wheat  havo  been  of 
iaie  always  good  ;  and  even  this  year,  (which  in  this  country, 
has  not  been  favorable  for  the  wheat  crop,)  she  has  threshed 
fifteen  Winchester  bushels  from  thirty-four  poles ;  though  part 
of  her  wheat  had  suffered  much  by  the  mildew.  ,The  straw  of 
her  wheat  she  carefully  preserves  for  litter  to  her  pig,  and  tO' 
increase  her  manure.  When  her  potatoes  are  gathered,  she 
separates  the  best  for  use,  then  a  proper  quantity  for  seed,  and 
the  small  potatoes  are  giveiv  to  her  pig. 


cottager's  cultivation.  QSB 

She  has  sixteen  poles  for  her  garden ;  upon  which  she  plants 
peas,  beans,  and  a  part  with  cabbages  ;  but  has  early  potatoes, 
and  peas  and  cabbages,  and  boils  the  turnips  for  her  pig. 

The  only  other  expence  of  feeding  her  pig,  is  swo  or  three 
bushels  of  peas ;  and  when  fit  to  kill,  it  weighs  about  three  hun- 
dred pounds.  She  buys  it  at  the  age  of  four  or  five  months,  a- 
bout  the  month  of  February  ;  and  it  is  killed  about  the  month 
of  January  in  the  following  year. 

When  she  first  began  this  method  of  alternate  crops,  and 
for  several  years  after,  she  depended  on  the  neighobringfarm- 
ers  for  ploughing  her  land  and  harrowing,  both  for  the  potatoes 
and  wheat:  but  as  the  farmers  naturally  delayed  working  for 
her,  till  their  own  work  was  chiefly  over,  her  land  was  not 
ploughed  in  proper  season.  She  has  been  for  the  last  six 
years  independent  of  the  farmer. 

She  is  careful  to  sow  no  more  land  at  a  time,  than  she  car- 
clear  of  potatoes  that  day. 

Observations  by  the  sam€  writer. 

This  mode  of  culture  proves,  that  potatoes  and  wheat  can  be 
produced  alternately  upon  the  same  land,  for  a  long  course  of 
years,  provided  that  a  small  quantity  of  manure  be  every  year 
used  for  the  potatoes;  and  it  shews  that  a  cottager  may  procure 
food  from  a  small  portion  of  land,  by  his  owokbor,  without  anf 
expence. 


240  AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

Both  wheat  and  potatoes  have  been  reckoned  exhausting 
crops  ;  but  this  mode  of  culture  shows  that  great  crops  of  both 
may  be  long  alternately  produced ;  which  may  probahJy  be  im- 
puted to  the  culture  by  the  spade  and  hoe,to  the  manuring  every 
s  econd  year  for  potatoes,  to  the  careful  destroying  of  weeds,  to 
the  planting  and  sowing  in  proper  season,  and  to  the  prevent 
ing  the  earth  from  being  too  loose,  (by  the  mode  of  sowing 
the  wheat  before  the  potatoes  aye  taken  up.) 

An  experienced  farmer  is  of  opinion  that  the  same  culture 
and  succession  of  crops,  will  answer  in  almost  any  land,  if 
properly  drained  and  skilfully  managed  ;  for  that  althoug'h 
strong  land  does  not  answer  well  for  potatoes,  nor  very  light 
land  for  wheat,  yet  that  cultivation  and  manure,  (and  .particu. 
larly  the  manure  of  lime)  will  soon  render  strong  land,  when 
elrained,  more  loose  ;  and  will  make  light  land  more  firm,  es- 
pecially if  cultivated  with  the  spade  and  hoe. 


CULTURE    #F    GARDENS.  'Mk 

0N  THE  CULTURE  OF  GARDENS, 
AND  ITS  Advantages  to  every  class  of  Citizens. 

The  profits  which  may  be  derived  from  the  culture  of  a  gar- 
den, are  much  more  than  those  are  aware  of  who  have  not 
made  it  an  object  of  attention.  It  vvill  be  found  of  great  impor- 
tance, even  to  the  farmer.  For  it  is  believed  that  the  use  of  the 
various  vegetables,  which  may  be  therein  produced,  might  su- 
percede the  necessity  of  consuming  such  large  quantities  of 
meat  as  is  too  often  practiced,  not  only  by  our  farmers,  but  by 
every  class. 

There  is  in  the  United  States,  as  in  every  civilized  country, 
very  many  who  are  greatly  dependent  for  their  support,  on  the 
produce  of  a  small  parcel  of  land,  a  garden 'only,  or  perhaps 
one  or  two  acres  in  addition ;  and  it  may  be  expected,  that  in 
the  progress  of  our  history,  that  class  of  citizens  will  continual- 
ly increase,  and  become  very  numerous.  To  that  class,  there- 
fore, on  whom  we  may  expect  to  be  greatly  dependent  for  our 
physical  strength,  the  science  of  gardening  is  partic#arly  im- 
portant ;  as  it  will  enable  them  to  acquire  the  greatest  quantity 
of  useful  vegetables  from  a  small  piece  of  ground. 

Gardens  consist  of  three  divisions,  the  kitchen,  the  fruit  and 
the  flower  garden.  The  latter  is  of  little  utility,  except  for  or- 
nament. The  art  of  planting  may,  however,  be  so  understood 
and  practiced,  as  to  render  useful  vegetables  when  growing, 
highly  ornamental.  Every  plant,  or  fruit  tree,  which  pertains 
to  a  garden,  had  better  be  included  in  the  same  inclosure ;, 
though  it  is  not  best  to  have  fruit  trees  and  plants  blended  to- 
gether, as  is  often  done;  the  shade  of  fruit  trees  being  injuri- 
ous to  the  growth  of  most  kinds  of  vegetables,  should  be  placed 
by  themselves. 

The  quince,  the  currant,  and  some  other  shrubbery,  may  be  in- 
termixed with  other  plants  without  much  injury,  as  they  make 
but  little  shade.     The  garden  vegetables,  which  have  been 
found  of  most  general  utility,  are,  beets^parrots^.parsnips,  peas* 
W 


242  A^KICWXTURAL  B8SAt«. 

beans,  sallads  of  different  kinds,  cabbages,  squasbes,  mclions, 
onions,  and  corn  and  potatoes  of  an  early  growth,  for  culinary 
ipurposes. 

Of  the  different  kinds  of  beets,  the  led  winter  beet  is  believ- 
ed to  be  the  best.  The  early  beet  of  a  white  or  pale  red  color, 
comes  to  maturity  much  sooner,  and  is  very  productive,  but  is 
of  a  more  insipid  flavor,  and  less  nutritive  than  the  red.  This 
root  boiled,  is  a  very  nutricious  vegetable  to  use  with  every 
kind  of  meat,  and  also  makes  an  excellent  pickle  when  pre- 
served like  the  cucumbej,  in  vinegar.  It  is  also  raised  in  some 
parts  of  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  making  sugar,  and  ardent 
spinl.s.  which  gives  it  an  additional  value.  The  beet  and  car- 
rot may  be  sown  from  the  tenth  to  the  twentieth  of  May,  vary- 
ing according  to  the  difference  of  climate  and  season,  in  the 
Ne\v-E;igla.nJ  States.  The  parsnip  may  be  sown  much  earli- 
er, as  the  seed  does  not  germinate  so  soon,  and  it  is  not  affect- 
ed by  the  frost. 

To  prepare  the  ground  properly,  for  the  reception  of  the  seed  of 
either  of  these  roots,  the  soil  should  be  made  very  rich,  and  mel- 
lowed to  the  depth  often  inches,  and  perfectly  pulverized,  so 
that  no  hard  substance  or  clump  of  earth  may  come  in  contact 
with  it.      To  effect  this,  it  is  always  best  to  plow  the  ground 
first  when  fruit  trees  or  shrubbery  are  not  in  the  way,  as  by 
that  means  the  soil  is  more  easily  aad  effectually  mellowed 
with  the  spade.    The  seed  of  beets,  carrots,  and  parsnips  sbould 
be  barely  covered  with  light  earth,  in  rows  across  the  bed,  and 
at  the  last  weeding,  should  be  thinned  so  as  to  stand  about 
four  inches  apart,  the  same  distance  to  be  observed  between 
the  rows,  though  carrots  will  often  grow  to  a  good  size  if  left 
standing  much  thicker.    In  the  management  of  the  parsnip,  w« 
may  see  the  tyranny  of  custom,  and  one  of  the  evils  of  igno- ; 
yance.    The  farmers  and  other  citizens  generally,  through  th* 
country,  are  governed  by  a  tradition  that  the  parsnip  is  only  & 
rarity,  to  be  used  a  few  days  in  the  spring ;  and  that  it  shouW 
be  kept  in  the  ground  through  the  winter,  when  by  digging  it 
in  the  fall  they  may  provide  thsir  table  with  a  very  pleasant. 


CULTURE    OF    GARDENS*  ^43 

and  useful  vegetable,  and  thereby  not  only  gain  the  longer  use 
of  the  plant,  but  have  it  in  much  greater  perfection,  as  it  often 
cannot  be  taken  up  in  the  spring  until  it  has  sprouted,  and  the 
inside  of  it  become  ligneous.  It  is  better  to  pack  them  in  a  box 
and  cover  them  with  sand,  or  some  of  the  earth  from  which 
they  are  taken ;  but  they  may  be  kept  well  as  beets  or  other 
roots,  and  not  liable  to  injury  from  frost ;  besides  it  takes  from 
them  that  rankness  of  flavor  offensive  to  some  tastes.  The  beet 
root,  when  in  the  early  stage  of  its  growth,  boiled  with  its  top, 
is  an  excellent  sauce  for  any  kind  of  meat. 

Among  the  great  variety  of  peas  cultivated  in  the  garden, 
are  the  small  early  pea,  the  marrow  fat,  and  the  sugar  pea. 
The  first,  which  is  often  called  the  June  pea,  grow^  about  three 
feet  high,  ripen  very  early,  but  are  not  very  productive.  The 
marrow  fats  and  sugar  pea  grow  five  or  six  feet  high,  in  a  rich 
soil,  and  are  much  more  productive.  They  should  be  sown  in 
two  rows,  about  five  inches  apart,  and  it  is  best  to  set  two  rows 
of  bushes  on  each  side  of  the  rows,  which  will  secure  the  vines 
more  effectually  from  falling  down.  The  bushes  of  the  latter 
kind  should  be  six  feet  high,  but  the  early  June  pea  require  a 
bush  of  only  three  feet  in  height.  These  kinds  of  peas  may 
ftlso  be  sown  in  the  broad  cast  way,  and  for  those  who  have  lan^d 
enough,  it  is  the  cheapest  way  of  raismg  them,  as  it  requires 
considerable  time  to  procure  and  set  the  bushes  ;  though  it  ie 
believed,  the  size  and  flavor  of  the  pea  is  improved  by  garden 
culture  ;  and  as  the  bush  furnishes  the  vine  with  more  atmos- 
pheric space,  in  which  it  may  extend  itself,  a  much  greater 
quantity  may,  in  this  mode  of  culture,  be  produced. 

After  the  peas  have  had  their  growth,  and  the  vines  are  cm 
the  decay,  they  may  be  removed,  and  the  soil  mellowed  and 
cleared  of  weeds  with  the  hoe  and  rake,  and  the  seed  of  tur- 
nips sown  across  the  bed  made  for  the  purpose,  from  four  to 
five  inches  apart ;  and  sown  so  that  they  be  wed  with  the  nar- 
row garden  hoe,  and  thinned  so  that  the  plants  should  be  left 
standing  two  or  three  inches  apart ;  if  fowls  are  kept  from 
running  over  them  and  eating  the  leaves,  and  insects  are  kept 


244  AGRieULTtrRAL   i:S9AYS. 

from  devouring  them,  by  some  of  the  means  described  in  the 
essay  on  insects,  a  valuable  crop  of  turnips  may  be  raised,  which 
will  compensate  for  the  extraordinary  expence  of  cultivating 
the  pea,  which  also  furnishes  one  of  the  most  nutritive  and  de- 
licious vegetables  for  the  table. 

Among  the  various  modes  of  planting  the  garden  bean,  it  is 
believed  the  greatest  quantity  may  be  raised  on  a  given  spot  of 
ground,  by  planting  them  ih  rows,  about  eight  or  ten  inches 
from  each  other,  and  the  seed  in  the  rows  about  one  inch  apart ; 
perhaps  to©,  the  same  quantity  of  soil  may  produce  rather  more, 
by  planting  those  which  are  called  the  poll  bean,  in  hills  about 
eighteen  inches  apart,  and  erecting  a  poll  near  the  hill,  frofti 
five  to  seven  feet  high.  As  there  are  a  great  variety  of  beans, 
distinguished  by  their  color  and  qualities,  the  choice  of  them 
will  be  directed  by  the  discretion  and  tastes  of  those  who  cul- 
tivate them.  When  boiled,  and  mixed  with  boiled  green  corn, 
they  make  a  very  delicious  sauce. 

Melons.      Of  this  fruit  there  are  but  two  species.     The 
mellon  with  a  rough  coat,  and  tha*.  with  a  smooth  skin.     The  | 
first  is  called  the  musk,  from  its  peculiar  flavoi,  and  the  other  I 
from  its  thin  and  abundant  juices.      Of  these  there  are  many 
varieties.    The  most  approved  of  the  musk  mellon  species,  are 
gaid  to  be  the  cantelope,  the  citron,  the  nutmeg,  and  the  Per- 
sian; and  of  the  water  melon,  the  Carolina,  the  Maltise,  the 
Candia,  and  the  Chate,  or  Egyptian.    As  both  of  these  species, 
and  all  their  varieties,  succeed  best  in  a  hot  climate  and  sandy 
soil,  it  is  obvious  that  in  the   colder  climate  of  cur  country,  to 
succeed  best  in  their  cultivation,  a  spot  should  be  selected  well 
defended  against  the  north  wind,  and  open  to  the  sun  through- 
out the  day.    In  the  most  northerly  part  of  our  country,  the  on- 
ly difficulty  in  the  culture  of  the  melon  arises  from  the  short- 
nessof  the  warm  season,  it  being  but  barely  sufficient  to  brin|fi 
them  to  maturity ;    they  cannot  therefore  be  expected  early  m  ! 
the  season  without  the  use  of  artificial  heat,  by  means  of  hot 
beds.    But  as  the  best  substitute  for  such  means,  and  to  insure 


i^tWRB    9T    GARDENS,  ^5 

a  crop,  a  hole  may  be  dug  about  twelve  inches,  and  filled 
with  strong  barn  manure  to  the  di  pth  of  about  five  or  six  mch- 
cs,  and  covered  with  common  sand,  on  which  six  or  eight  seeds 
may  be  planted,  and  thinly  covered  with  a  rich  earth.  The 
hUls  should  be  about  five  feet  apart,  and  three  or  four  plants 
left  standing  in  a  hill.  If  more  than  this  escape  the  ravages 
of  the  insect,  they  should  be  pulled  out.  But  it  is  thought  this 
mode  of  culture  is  not  necessary  when  the  soil  is  presented  to 
asoutiiern  exposure,  and  is  very  fertile  ;  though  it  is  believed 
the  former  may  better  secure  them  against  the  attacks  ot  the 
insect.  The  seeds  of  the  last  year  only  should  the  sown,  be- 
cause they  vegetate  quicker  than  old  ones,  and  accord- 
ingly best  promote  the  object  of  the  hot  b^d,  which  is  to  give 
early  fruit. 

Another  provision  for  the  want  of  early  and  continued  heat, 
gardeners  would  make  choice  of  those  varieties  which  have 
the  thinnest  skins,  and  least  bulk,  as  such  require  the  least 
heat,  other  things  being  equal.  If  the  branches  are  long  and 
vigorous,  it  has  been  practiced  by  some,  to  stretch  them  care- 
fully over  a  level  surface,  and  bury  every  fourth  or  fifth  joint, 
that  wherever  the  plant  is  buried  new  roots  may  be  formed, 
for  the  better  nutrition  of  the  stem  and  the  fruit. 

The  ripeness  of  the  musk  melon  is  known  by  its  color  and  its 
odor,  and  by  the  drying  of  the  stem  where  it  attaches  itself  to 
the  fruit. 

The  water  melon  furnishes  neither  of  these  signs,  but  affords 
another  peculiar  to  itself,  a  hollow  sound  on  being  struck  on  the 
rind,  the  result  of  an  actual  hollowness  beginning  and  increas- 
ing with  its  maturity. 

Onion.  This  is  called  by  botanists  the  Allium  Cepa,  and  has 
many  varieties  distinguished  by  color,  size  and  taste,  and  one 
of  them,  the  canadense,  by  organization,  its  fruit  growing  on 
its  head,  and  in  the  place  of  flowers.  Of  these  varieties,  the 
led  is  the  largest,  but  most  acrid ;  the  pale  red  and  the  yellow, 

w2 


^46  AQRKVVrURAL  ^33 AYS. 


are  less  in  size  than  the  red,  and  somewhat  milder,  but  the  white, 
(of  Spain  and  of  Florence,)  though  the  smallest,  are  the  mUdest, 
the  soonest  fit  for  use,  and  the  best  for  keeping-.  They 
are  eaten  by  some  like  apples.  On  analysis,  they  are 
found  to  possess  less  of  those  elements  (oil  and  sulphur)  which 
give  the  common  onion  its  peculiar  taste  and  smell.  A  rich 
aandy  soil  is  the  most  favorable  to  the  onion.  They  have  been 
known  to  grow  to  the  size  of  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.  In 
clay  or  stony  soil,  or  pure  sand,  the  onion  does  not  prosper.  It 
IS  propagated  by  the  seeds  or  the  bulbs.  It  is  said  the  Tartars 
propagate  them  by  cutting;  they  slit  the  bulb  downwards,  and 
leave  to  each  cutting  a  portion  of  the  fibrous  roots. 

When  sown,  it  should  be  in  drills,  twelve  or  fourteen  inch- 
es  apart,  cover  with  mould,  and  when  the  plants  come  up 
they  should  be  thinned,  so  as  to  stand  three  or  four  inchest 
apart.     The  ground  should  be  mellowed  at  the  depth  of  three 
or  four  inches  only.     After  the  ^rth  has  acquired  a  tempera- 
ture favorable  to  vegetation  in  the  spring,  the  sooner  they  are 
sown  the  better.    In  hoeing  them,  they  should  only  be  kept 
•lear  of  weeds,  and  the  dirt  loosened  about  them,  but  no  earth 
4rawn  upon  the  root  to  hill  them.    The  tops  should  be  broken 
'down  after  they  have  grown  to  the  length  of  eight  or  ten  inch- 
es, that  the  juices  may  determine  to  the  bulbs.    The  small 
'kalf  grown  onion  may  be  institute^  for  the  seed.     The  cana- 
4ense  variety  should  always  be  managed  in  this  way:  They 
May  be  preserved  through  the  winter  in  a  dry  and  moderately 
warm  cellar.    Frost  does  not  injure  them  as  it  does  many 
^ther  roots.    The  largest  are  set  out  in  the  spring  for  see^ 
and  when  perfectly  ripe,  the  stems  are  cut,  and  the  seed  left 
m  the  capsules  for  use.    If  preserved  in  this  way,  it  is  said  the 
"meed  retains  its  germinating  power  much  longer  than  if  thrash- 
«d  immediately  after  ripening. 

Sallads.  Of  these,  lettice  is|the  plant  in  most  general  use 
Ihe  principal  varieties  of  which  are,  the  head  lettice,  the  curled 
Jettice,  and  the  lettice  with  open,  straight,  and  erect  leaves:; 
altJiou^h  4)otanists,  it  is  said,  have  multiplied  the  varieties  of 


CTTLTURE    Of   SARDEWS.  2^ 

this  plant  to  the  immber  of  one  hundred  or  more.  The  head 
and  curled  lettice  should  be  sown  early  in  the  spring,  in  beds, 
in  rows  across  the  bed^ix  inches  apart.  When  the  plant  is 
up,  and  the  leaf  grows  to  the  size  of  half  a  cent,  they  should 
be  thinned  so  as  to  stand  three  or  four  inches  from  each  other, 
or  they  may  be  sown  in  a  bed,  and  the  plants  transplanted  like 
cabbages.  The  seed  may  also  be  sown  in  the  fall,  and  as  the 
frost  approaches,  covered  with  a  light  layer  of  stable  litter  ^ 
which  in  that  case  should  be  removed  in  the  spring,  and  the 
surface  of  the  bed  loosened  with  an  iron  toothed  rake  ;  it  ie 
said  the  first  vegetation  that  she  ,vs  itself  will  be  that  of  lettice, 
and  it  may  be  thinned  and  cultivated  where  it  stands,  or  trans- 
planted into  beds,  as  that  which  is  sown  in  the  spring. 

Cale  is  a  species  of  the  cabbage,  and  like  that  plant,  boiled 
for  use.  It  is  distinguished  for  its  upright,  long,  broad,  and 
open  leaves.  It  has  the  power  of  resisting  frost  beyond  that 
of  any  other  variety  of  the  family.  Frost  that  would  be  de- 
•atructive  of  head  cabbage,  will  make-Cale  better.  This  fact 
gives  it  a  preference  for  garden  culture,  which  is  always  for 
spring  greens.  There  are  a  great  varietyof  other  rare  sallads, 
a  discription  of  which  is  not  compatible  with  the  limits  of  this 
little  volume. 

Cabbage.  This  plant  requires  a  rich,  strong  soil ;  and  wDl, 
it  is  believed,  grow  yearly  on  the  same  ground  without  much 
exhausting  the  soil.  When  an  early  crop  for  the  table  is  in- 
tended, the  seeds  should  be  sown  very  earlj',  as  soon  as  the 
soil  presents  signs  of  spontaneous  vegetation.  The  seeds  may 
be  sown  in  the  beds  where  they  are  designed  to  be  cultivated, 
though  transplanting  is  the  best  method.  The  ^plant  should  be 
set  up  to  the  leaves,  at  least  two  feet  apart.  But  to  insure  a 
good  crop,  the  ground  must  be  well  worked,  and  abundantly 
manured  with  weU  rotted  dung.  When  the  crop  is  intended 
■for  fall  or  winter  use,  the  seeds  had  better  be  sown  some  later. 
'The  Romans,  who  were  said  to  be  very  successful  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  cabbage,  aimed  particularly  at  giving  to  the 
plant  ^reat  size.    And  it  is  believed  its  tender  and  deliciouf 


!^9  AGRICVLTVRAL   ESSAYS. 

quialities  are  in  some  measure  proportioned  to  its  magnitudei 
Frequent  hoeing  or  stirring  the  ground  about  the  plant,  espe- 
cially in  the  morning  while  the  dew  is  on,  will  greatly  acceler- 
ate the  growth,  and  increase  the  size  of  the  head. 

When  they  are  kept  in  the  cellar  for  winter  use,  it  is  the 
practice  of  some  to  hang  them  up  with  the  heads  downward  ; 
they  may  be  kept  also  through  the  winter  by  cutting  off  the 
heads,  and  laying  them  away  in  a  cask  filled  with  snow,  and 
keeping  them  in  a  cold  place.  For  a  spring  supply,  the  fol- 
lowing mode  is  recommended :  to  make  a  trench  in  a  dry  soil, 
and  line  it  with  straw :  set  the  heads  in  closely  together,  with 
the  roots  upwards ;  cover  them  with  straw,  and  then  with 
ear!h,  piled  up  as  steep  as  possible.  In  this  manner  it  is  said 
they  will  keep  till  May,  and  occasionally  dug  out  as  they  are 
wanted. 

The  common  white  and  red  cabbage,  the  winter-green  globe, 
and  the  Dutch,  Scotch,  and  Savoy,  are  mostly  in  use.  The 
white  and  winter  green  globe  are  best  for  winter  use ;  the 
red  for  sallad,  and  the  others    are  early,  and  have  smaller 

heads.  !^ 

ii 

Asparagus  is  one  of  the  first  green  vegetables  which  the  I. 
opening  spring  presents,  and  for  which  no  substitute  equally 
productive  can  be  had  till  the  season  for  green  peas  and  beans,  | 
which  are  not  usually  to  be  bad  until  some  time  in  the  sum- 
mer. It  is  an  excellent  green  vegetable,  with  any  kind  of  meat  | 
either  roasted  or  boiled.      It  is  usually  prepared  for  the  table  j 
^y  tying  it  together  in  bunches  three  or  four  inches  in  diame- 
ter, and  boiled ;  its  nutriment  and  flavor  very  much  resemblee 
that  of  the  pea. 

There  are  various  modes  of  cultivating  it.  The  following  ie 
the  most  usual  and  simple.  Open  a  trench  four  or  five  feet 
wide  and  one  foot  deep,  in  the  warmest  part  of  your  garaen, 
the  warmer  the  better.  Fill  the  trench  half  full  of  good  barn 
dung  ;  level  it,  and  scatter  some  good  earth  over  it ;  then  lay 
on  your  roots  eight  or  nine  inches  apart,  in  their  ratural  posi- 
tion: orifeeedsbe  used  about  half  the  dietance  apart;  then 


249 

CULTURE    OF    GARDENS. 


■,„  complete  the  bed,  fill  «P  the  trench  with  good  «>il.  If  roote 
are  planted,  they  may  be  cut  the  second  year ;  but  if  seeds, 
rttillTethW.'  After  thebudisfit  for  -■  f  ;he  =hooU 
which  come  up  before  the  m.^le  of  June  may  be  c^  off,  btt. 
all  after  that  should  run  to  seed  to  strengthen  the  plants,  m 
tm  Ihey  should  have  a  layer  of  rotten  dung  spread  over 
them  an  inch  in  depth,  which  may  m  P"* '>\*t«°  f  !^"  "^^ 
sprin.T  ;  and  when  the  bed  becomes  too  b-h  by  the  constant 
addition  of  dung,  part  of  the  earth  may  be  pared  off  m  the 
spring,  before  the  plants  shoot,  and  the  bed  covered  again  witn  _ 
a  thin  compost  of  rotten  dung. 

CocuMBERS.    This  plant  is  cultivated  by  planting^it  in  hUls 
about  six  feet  apart,  other  wise  the  vines  will  cover  the  grouM 
so  thickly   that  it  will  be  difficult  to  go  among  them  without 
injuring  the  vines.     The  greatest  difficulty  in  raising  this 
ffuitis  to  keep  the  insects  from  destroying  them,  when  tne 
pknts  are  young.  For  sotoe,the  means  of  effecting  this,  see  arti- 
Gleon  insects.  Those  who  have  but  a  very  ^-ff  ,^P°V''„^.  ^„„ 
den  sometimes  practice  filling  a  tub  or  barrel  half  full  of  stones 
and  with  as  much  water,  over  this  lay  some  straw  and  fill  the 
vessel  with  the  richest  earth,  and  plant  on  the  top  a  Pl<;nty  »« 
seeds;  spread  some  bushes  round  the  tub  for  the  vnes  toj«n 
on ;  u^  this  way  a  great  cropmay  be  raised ;  the   cask  may  be 
open  atthelower  end;  in  that  case  or  otherwise    water  mu. 
be  occasionally  applied  to  keep  them  sufficiently  moist      I 
might  be  an  improvement  to  this  method  to  raise  »°  "™'a' 
mound  ofearth  about  the  circumference,  and  a  little  higher 
than  a  common  barrel,  and  of  a  conical  structure,  the  diameter 
of  the  upper  surface  being  but  one  third  and  ""^  ^f  *=;'  "^ '^ 
base  ;  plant  on  the  top  of  it  as  on  the  cask.      If  the  mound  is 
..composed  ofaconsiderable  portion  of  clay,  one  quarter  or  one 
third,  the  plants  would  require  much  less  water  to  be  applied 
By  this  method,  it  will  be  seen,  that  atmospheric  space  will 
furnish  room  for  the  vines,  which  otherwise  would  o^cuppy  he 
same  extent .  of  soil.     The  same  economy  might  be  practiced 


'^  AGntCULTtRAL   ESSAYS. 

mthecuItu™ofsqu«he.,a,elons,&c.wherethevineissufficienl 
to  eusta.n  the  weight  of  the  fruit  without  injury. 

'This  may  appear  to  some  as  the  useless  project  of  a  visiona- 
ry imagination.  But  agricultural  essays  should  be  written 
«.th  a  reference  to  the  interests  of  distant  times,  and  other 
Circumstances,  whichin  the  progress  of  human  affairs,  we  may 
expect  will  be  inevitable. 

Red  Peppxk.  This  is  said  to  be  the  annual  pepper  of  the 
botanists,  of  which  there  are  two  species,  the  grossumand 
the  Irustenaus,  the  latter  of  which  is  usually  seen  in  hot  houses. 
It  requires  a  warm  soil,  and  if  sown  early,  a  good  deal  of  dung 
and  a  favorable  exposition.  The  seeds  may  be  placed  in  rows 
three  feet  apart,  or  in  hills,  at  the  like  distance  from  each  oth- 
er.  In  dry  weather,  the  planta  require  watering,  and  in  all 
kmds  of  weather,  weeding  and  hoeing.  Ths  seeds  are  best 
preserved  by  running  a  string  through  the  pods  and  hanging 
them  up  in  a  dry  garret." 

There  are  various  other  plants  both  ornamental  and  useful, 
for  garden  culture,  the  particular  description  of  which,  can  be 
expected  from  essays  devoted  wholly  to  horticultural  agricul- 
ture. The  author  of  these  essays,  hopes  by  publishing  the 
Me  mformation  herein  contained,  to  obtain  one  important  ob^ 
ject  he  had  in  view,  that  of  exciting  more  attention  to  this  de- 
Bghtful  branch  of  rural  economy. 

It  has  been  observed  thkt  "Europeans  who  have  travelled  in 
tJie  United  States,  have  observed  that  the  people  in  this  country 
•at  more  meat  than  in  any  other."  This  is  believed  to  be  true. 
Besides  eating  meat  three  times  a  day,  among  the  farmers,  we 


ttJLTTniE    OF    GARDENS.  251 

frequently    see  the  table   spread  with  nothing  but  meat  and 
bread,  or  with  only  one  or  two  of  the  poorest  kinds  of  vegeta- 
bles with   it.      It  has  been  noticed  too,   that  there  is  a   very 
great  difference  in  the  goodness  of  living  in  families  of  nearly 
the  same  rank  and  wealth  ;    and  that  good  living  does  not  de- 
pend on  the  expence  ;  bu*  on  the  contrary,  those  families  who 
live  at  the  greatest  expence  generally  live  the  poorest.     Bread 
and  meat  are  by  far,  the  two  most  expensive  articles  of  food  ; 
and  as  most  families  are  in  the  use  of  these  articles,  the  dif- 
ference in  living  in  different  familieSjdepends  principally  on  the 
different  kinds  of  culinary  vegetables  which  are  prepared  and 
presented  at  the  table    with  the  bread  and  meat.   As  all  those 
kinds  of  vegetables  are  much  cheaper  than  bread  or  meat,  the 
greater  the  quantity  of  these  consumed  in  a  family,  the   less 
will  be  the  expence  of  living  ;  for  it  is  presumed  that  people 
will  consume  but  a  given   quantity  of  food,   and  that  what  is 
consumed  of  one  kind  will  be  spared  of  another.     It  is  not  e- 
nough  to  have  but  one  or  two  kinds  of  vegetables  on  the  ta- 
ble at  once  ;  people  have  not  all  the  same  taste  ;  some  will  pre- 
fer one  kind  and  some  another,  so  that  when  there  is  a  variety, 
every  one  will  meet  with  something  agreeable  to  his  taste  ; 
and  there  is  no  loss  in  preparing  more  vegetables  for  the  ta- 
bles than  can  be  consumed,  as  they  afford  more  nutriment  for 
domestic  animals  than  they  do  in  their  raw   state.     There  ie 
no  class  of  people  in  the  community  who  have  it  in  their  power 
to  supply  themselves  with  such  a  variety  of  the  best  kinds  of 
vegetables,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  as  the  farmers.    But  this 
would  require  a  garden,  and   some   attention  to  it.      And  in 
this  a  great  portion  of  the  farmers  in  the  northern  states  are 
generally  deficient.      A  small  piece  of  m-ound  w^ithout  any 
permanent  inclosure,  and  planted   with  a  Tew  of  the   coarsest, 
and  most  common  vegetables,  is  all   they  call   the   garden. 
And  even  this  is  indifferently  cultivated.    One  might  suppose 
that  the  farmer  considered  the  garden  oflittle  or  no  con- 
sequeoce  ;  and  the  labor  bestowed  uix)n  it    little  better  than 
lost,  while  they  toil  excessively  in  the  field.     This  is  an  error 


g52  A6RIGULTURAX   ESSAYS*. 

which  should  be  corrected.  To  remedy  this  defect,  and  render 
their  living  both  pleasant  and  cheap,  it  is  recommended  to  every 
farmer, who  has  not  already  done  it,  to  select  a  piece  of  ground 
liear  his  house,  from  half  an  acre  to  an  acre,  to  inclose  it  with 
a  permanent  fence,and  to  break  and  manure  it  sufficientfy,  and 
plant  and  sow  it  with  all  the  variety  of  culinary  vegetables 
camraon  to  our  country.  Any  family  that,  will  adopt  this 
method  and  follow  it  for  several  years,  will  think  it  strange 
indeed  that  they  had  neglected  this  important  branch  of  rural 
economy  so  long. 

There  is  an  advantage  to  be  derived  from  gardening,  which» 
the  farmer  may  extend  to  his  field  husbandry.  It  will  give 
him  an  opportunity  oftrying  various  experiments  upon  a  smali 
scale,  with  respect  to  the  different  effect  of  the  various  kinds 
of  manure,  and  the  best  manner  of  applying  it,  as  also  many 
others  with  respect  to  the  culture  of  different  plants  which  he 
would  not  be  willing  to  hazard,  or  it  might  not  be  so  conven- 
ient for  him  to  do  it  in  a  course  of  field  husbandry. 

The  husbandman  is  not  advised  to  sacrifice  the  advantage- 
of  his  farm,  to  the  ornaments  or  the  pleasures  of  a  garden  ;  his 
gram  fields,  for  the  culture  of  roses;  but  his  attention  is  in- 
vited to  the  utility,  convenience,  and  economy,  that  can  be 
found  in  the  cultivation  of  a  substantial  kitchen  garden,  from 
which  his  family  may  derive  many  innocent  luxuries,  which 
providence  with  a  liberal;  hand,  has  spread  around  him. 

The  moral  and  physical  effects  of  gardening  furnish  no  in- 
considerable motive  to  its  occupation.  It  expands  the  mind, 
strengthens  the  body,  and  tends  to  promote  habits  of  order,  dil-. 
i.gence,  temperance,  economy  and  observation. 


maladies  of  bees.  253 

Maladies  of  Bees. 


A  Mr.  Huish,  who  appears  to  have  attended  much  to  the 
management  of  bees,  acknowledges  great  difhculty,  both  in 
discovering  the  maladies  of  tlie  bee,  and  the  remedies ;  but 
adds,  if  you  have  many  hives,  and  any  one  becomes  sickly,  re- 
move it  as  soon  as  possible,  that  it  may  not  infect  the  remain- 
der. If  you  have  but  few  hives,  you  may  attempt  first  to  inves- 
tigate the  disease,  and  next  its  cure.  He  farther  states,  that 
the  dysentary  is  one  of  the  most  common,  as  well  as  fatal  dis- 
eases of  the  bee.  And  that  the  mark  of  this  disease,  is  the  ex- 
crement voided  by  the  bee  at  the  entrance  of  the  hives,  in 
spots,  like  linseed,  nearly  black,  and  of  an  insupportable  smell; 
and  that  this  malady  is  contagious.  The  bees,  when  afSicted 
with  this  disease,  destroy  each  other,  by  contaminating  their 
wings  with  this  excrement,  and  thus  stop  the  organs  of  perspi- 
ration. The  cause  of  this  disease  is,  by  some,  ascribed  to  new 
honey,  when  eaten  in  winter ;  by  some,  to  the  deficiency  of 
propolis,  or  bee  bread  ;  and  by  others,  to  the  flowers  of  the  elm» 
and  lime,  from  which  they  extract  honey.  Other  causes  are 
also  ascribed  to  this  disease ;  in  any  general  one,  however,  wri- 
ters do  not  appear  to  be  agreed.  Mr.  HuisJi,  considers  the  dis- 
ease incurable,  although  its  prevention  may  be  effected.  As 
fioon,  therefore,  says  he,  as  I  see  any  of  my  hives  affected  with 
it,  I  give  them  a  little  of  the  following  composition,  which  has 
invariably  checked  the  malady,  when  given  in  the  early  sta- 
ges. 

iluZe.— To  a  quart  of  white  wine,  add  a  pint  of  honey,  and 
two  pounds  of  loaf  sugar ;  put  the  whole  into  a  tin  sauce  pan, 
and  let  it  boil  gently  over  a  slow  fire,  skimming  it  at  different 
times  until  it  is  reduced  to  the  consistency  of  Syrup.  Il  may 
then  be  bottled,  and  put  into  the  cellar,  and  kept  cool  for  use. 
Whenever  it  is  used,  it  must  be  genily  heated,  until  it  partakes 
of  the  consistency  of  honey.    Mr.  lionconi,  an  Italian  author 


■S54  AGRICULTURAL   ESSAYS. 

recommends  fresh  urine,  placed  on  plates  near  the  hives,  for  the 
use  of  the  bees.  He  also  recommends  white  wine,  boiled  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  loaf  sugar,  with  an  addition  of  cloves  and 
nutmegs,  as  doing  well.  Also,  the  bark  of  pomegranates, 
pounded  and  mixed  with  honey  and  sweet  wine,  as  being  con- 
ducive to  the  health  of  the  bee. 

•Mr.  Duchet  recommends  good  old  port  wine,  mixed  with 
honey. 

Mr.  Wildman  recommends  fine  salt  as  a  remedy,  to  be  placed 
on  the  bee  stand,  where  they  may  eat  it  at  pleasure. 

Oat  meal  is  also  recommended  in  the  dysentary. 

All  these  remedies  are  approved  of  by  Mr.  Huish,  who  ob- 
serves, that  great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  hives  as 
clean  as  possible  during  the  prevalence  of  the  dysentary  a- 
mongst  your  bees. 

He  further  observes,  that  the  antenna  of  the  bee .  are  some- 
times diseased,  and  turn  yellow,  attended  with  some  swelling  ; 
but  considers  the  disease  as  slight.  The  abortive  brood,  al- 
though not  an  epedemical  disorder,  is  still  very  injurious  in  its 
effects  upon  the  bees.  Two  causes  produce  this  effect :  first, 
when  the  bees  have  given  the  larva  improper  food  ;  second, 
when  the  worm  is  placed  in  the  cell  with  the  tail  towards  its 
mouth.  In  this  case,  the  young  bees,  incapable  of  extrication, 
die  and  putrif}^ 

The  bees  generally  remedy  the  evils  6f  this  putrefaction  by 
removmg  the  gtbortive  brood  ;  but  should  this  accident  take 
place  in  winter,  the  infected  combs  may  be  cht  out  when  the 
hives  are  examined  in  the  spring.  The  tops  of  the  cells,  when 
Bound,  are  convex- and  yeUowish ;  when  abortive,  concave  anil 
blackish. 

There  are  various  enemies  of  the  bee,  besides  the  worm,  or 
butterfly,  mentioned  in  the  essay  on  btes,  disclosed  to  the  au- 
thor  smce.that  essay  was  sent  to  the  press,araong  which  are  Uie 
mouse,  pf  all  kinds,  the  rat,  the  toad,  and  the  ant.     It  is  believ^ 


MALADIES    OF    BEES.  255 

ed.  the  attention  of  the  keeper  in  fixing  his  apiary,  may  guard 
the  bee  generally  agafnst  these  common  enemies.  The  king 
bird  also,  and  the  woodpecker,  sometimes  hover  about  the  api- 
ary to  feed  on  the  bees  ;  they  may  be  carefully  watched  and 
destroyed.  The  spider  will  also  entrap  the  bee  in  his  web,  and 
feed  on  him.  The  spider  enters  the  hive  when  the  weather  is 
cold,  and  the  bees  have  lost  their  energies,  spin  their  web  and 
thus  obtain  their  prey.  The  wasp  is  also  an  enemy  to  the'bee  ; 
he  surveys  the  hive  m  summer,  and  whenever  he  finds  a  crevice 
enters  and  robs  the  hive,  aad  feeds  on  the  honey.  The  wasps 
collectively,  sometimes  attack  weak  hives,  the  same  as  robbin* 
bee^,  and  rob  the  swarm.  ® 

Mr.  Huish  observes,  that  he  does  not  know  a  more  efficacious 
inethod  of  destroying  wasp's  nests,  than  sulphur.  The  wasp, 
the  bumble  bee,  aiid  the  honey  bee,  all  feed  on  the  same  food 
for  this  reason,the  two  first  should  be  driven  as  much  as  possi- 
ble from  the  neighborhood  of  the  apiary,  particularly  in  Sep- 
tember and  October,  when  the  herbage  of  the  field  fails,  they 
are  driven  by  hunger  to  rob  the  hives.  Unless  you  watch  vour 
bees  carefully  at  this  season,  they  may  be  ruined  beforeVou 
are  aware.  The  toad  is  also  the  enemy  of  bees,  and  will  catch 
them,  particularly  in  warm  weather.  He  should  be  driven 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  apiary.  A  little  garlic  rubbed  about 
your  lave,  will  guard  them  against  the  ravages  of  the  ant. 

The  moth  is  an  pnemy  to  the  bee.  It  is  the  caterpillar,  which 
m  a  certam  state,  gnaws  our  trees,  books,  paper,  &c.  Stroncr' 
hives  can  protect  themselves  against  the  moth  ;  but  weak  hivel 

ZlZ^T.u'T'  '"'  '"^^"''     '^'^  "^^^^'  '-  '^^  butterfly 
ter  tv.  !  .     ^'"''  '"  ^'''^  '"^  ^^'°^^^'  ^"d  ^y  her  dex- 

terity deposits  her  eggs  amongst  the  comb,  and  dies.  '  From  ev- 
ery egg  a  smooth  caterpillar  bursts  forth,  of  a  pale  white,  its 
head  bro^^^  and  scaly.  It  encloses  itself  in  a  little  web  of  wliite 
a^lkwhichit  attaches  to  the  combs,  and  in  which  it  finds  its 
^ood,  by  projecting  its  head  beyond  its  case.  When  the  food 
ground  It  begins  to  faU,  it  prolongs  its  silken  webj   which. 


2ijQ  A6R1CULTURAL    ESSAYS. 

though  a  mere  thread  at  the  beginning,  becomes  almost  insen- 
sibly, as  large  as  a  quill.  This  insect,  having  attained  its 
growth,  submits  to  the  metamorphosis,  common  to  all  caterpil- 
lars ;  it  quits  its  residence,  retires  to  one  corner  of  the  hive,  or 
departs  from  it ;  spins  a  white  covering,  emerges  as  a  butterfly, 
copulates,  and  re-enters  the  hive  to  deposit  its  eggs  as  before. 
This  insect,  next  to  man,  is  the  most  destructive  enemy  of  the 
bee.  Mr.  Huish  thinks  a  remedy  against  this  insect  is  very  dif- 
ficult, and  advises  that  whenever  you  suspect  your  hives  are 
devouring  by  the  moth,  oin  your  hive,  and  thus  save  the  little 
which  remains.  If  your  bees  become  inactive,  when  other 
swarms  are  at  work,  and  continue  so  10  or  15  days,  no  time  is 
to  be  lost  in  examining  your  hive,  when  the  ravages  of  the 
moth  will  appear.  The  same  author  observes,  save  your  bees 
if  possible  by  removal  to  another  hive ;  all  their  labors  are  lost 
in  that  hive. 

Every  apiarian,  who  expects  to  reap  profits  from  his  hives, 
must  be  constantly  on  the  alert,  to  effect  the  destruction  of  the 
enemies  of  the  bees ;  who  always  would  carry  on  their  depre- 
dations in  secret. 


Ctn^tFKE    OF   THE    BEE.  *257 


The  Adva'ntages  whtch  accrue  to  the  State  and  to 
"Individuals  fro.m  the  Culture  of  the  Bee. 


The  whole  history  of  the  proper  management  of  the  bee, 
would  fill  a  considerable  volume.  But  when  the  advantages  to 
be  derived  from  them,  are  duly  appreciated,  it  cannot  be  be- 
lieved that  individuals  would  want  inducements  to  pay  more  at- 

'tention  to  their  culture. 

"It  is  a  notorious  fact,  that  England  pays  annually  to  the 
north  of  Germany,  £40  or  £50,000  sterling,  for  the  produce  of 
the  bee,  which  could  be  saved  by  a  small  expence  by  her  own 
peasantry.     Even  in  America,  we  are  so  regardless  of  the  pro- 

'fits  of  the  bee,  as  to  import  honey  in  hogsheads  from  the  island 
of  Cuba  and  elsewhere.    T^To  country  possesses  greater  ad  van- 

'tages  for  the  culture  of  'the  bee.  and  perhaps  no  country  has 
so  grossly  neglected  it." 
Mr.  Huish,  after  having  gone  over  a  complete  system  of  the 

.jnanagement  of  the  bee,  observes,  "I  consider  200  hives  may  be 
managed  by  one  person,  with  some  slight  assistance,  during  tht 

swarming  season. 

Some  French  authors  eulogize  the  skill  of  M.  Proerteac,  who 
had  constantly  under  his  care,  from  5  to  600  hives  ;  this  is  rare, 
and  pei-haps  the  only  one.  I  will  state  the  profits  of  five  years, 
•upon  a  fair  and  equitable  scale,  making,  at  the  same  time,  fair 
and  ample  allowances  for  the  losses,  which  even  the  most  skil- 
ful apiarian  cannot  prevent. 

Suppose  a  person  to  buy  a  sw  arm  in  1819,  for  v,^hich  he  payp 
one  guinea.  In  the  month  of  Blay  or  June  his  hive  swarms, 
and  in  about  ten  days  it  swarms  again  ;  this  is  called  a  cast. 
His  apiary  now  consists  of  three  hives,  from  one  of  which,  (the 
last,)  it  will  be  most  prudent  for  him  to  take  the  honey,  and  the 
bees  be  joined  to  the  strongest  stock  of  hives.  Suppose  the 
•casts  weigh  15  pounds,  say  22  shillings;  thus,  in  the  first  year 
he  has  received  back  the  price  ofhis  original  hive,  and  dou- 


258  AGRICFLTURAL   ESSAfS. 

bled  his  stock.  The  second  year  his  two  hives  produce  him 
four  swarms  and  two  casts ;  let  him  sell  the  honey  his  of  casts  at 
15  shillings  each,  which  will  give  him  thirty  shillings,  and  add 
the  swarms  to  his  stocks ;  he  has  now  four  good  stocks  ;  at  the 
end  of  each  year  let  him  weigh  his  hives  and  take  all  the 
comb  over  thirty  pounds  ;  say  eleven  pounds  a  year  from  each 
hive  ;  this  gives  him  forty  pounds  of  honey  comb,  at  one  shil- 
ling sixpence,  gives  him  three  pounds;  this  added  to  the  profit, 
or  the  two  casts  as  before,  gives  four  pounds  ten  shillings. 
The  third  year  his  four  hives  produce  four  swarms  and  four 
casts ;  he  goes  on  as  before,  and  on  the  fourth  year  his 
apiary  consists  of  eight  stocks.  At  the  beginsning  of  the 
fifth  year,  his  apiary  has  increased  to  sixteen  stocks. 

From  the  above  statement  let  him  who  is,  or  would  be  an 
apiarian,  or  keeper  of  bees,  calculate  the  actual  profit 

The  profit  which  is  obtained  from  the  bee,  bears  no  propor- 
tion to  the  little  trouble  and  time  required  to  their  culture, 
which  should  induce  more  of  our  farmers  to  engage  in  the  bu- 
siness, as  but  very  little  expence  of  time  or  property,  and  no 
extensive  capital  is  necessary. 

"As  a  proof  of  the  importance  attached  to  the  culture  of  the 
Bee,  Wildman  qu  jtes  a  modern  author,  who  affirms  that  when 
the  Romans  took  possession  of  the  Island  of  Corsica,they  impos- 
ed a  tribute  of  wax  on  the  inhabitants,  to  the  amount  of  2CO,000 
pounds  annually  ;  supposing  the  island  retained  the  same  quan- 
tity, that  would  give  400,000  pounds  per  annum  made  in  one 
Island  by  this  wonderful  insect.  The  known  proportion  of 
wax  to  honey  in  a  hive  is  as  1  to  J  5  or  20 ;  then  multiply 
400,000  pounds  by  15  or  20,  we  have  six  or  eight  millions  of 
pounds  of  honey,  independent  of  the  wax  as  above."  Linneus, 
in  speaking  of  the  bee,  says  it  is  not  yet  determined  if  the 
bees,  and  other  insects  which  feed  on  lioney,  occasion  any  in- 
jury to  the  little  embryos,  or  cause  any  destruction  to  their 
generation,  by  imbibing  the  nectar  of  the  flowers."  It  ia  ob- 
vious that  tiie  Bees  afford  immense  profits  to  the  cwltivatorsr 


MANUFACTURE  OF  METHEGLlN. 


and  that  too  with  very  little  expence  and  trouble,  and  withoi^t 
any  injury  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  must  therefore,  be 
from  either  a  want  of  knowledge  or  attention  to  this  branch  of 
rural  economy,  that  America  has  hitherto  derived  so  little 
share  from  the  profits  of  this  wonderful  insect 


The  Manufacture  of  Metheglin. 

A  hundred  pounds  of  honey  is  generally  used  to  make  a 
barrel  of  this  liquor  ;  ninety  has,  however,  been  found  to  an- 
swer very  well.  The  liquor  is  thus  made.  Take  of  honey 
and  clear  water,  in  the  above  proportions,  and  boil  them  for  an 
hour ;  when  the  liquor  is  cool,  barrel  it,  adding  some  ginger, 
cloves,  and  mace,  if  you  would  improve  it,  though  it  will  make  a 
good  and  delicious  beverage  without.  Some  yeast  is  to  be  put  m- 
to  the  cask  to  ferment  it ;  and  let  it  have  a  little  vent  while  fer- 
menting, but  close  the  vent  as  soon  as  moat  of  the  fermenta- 
tion is  over.  It  may  be  improved  by  bottling  it,  af^er  five  or 
six  months* 


20© 


A6KICJ5LTURAL     ESflAYS 


Manufacture  of  Mead, 


Mead  is  a  beverage  prepared  of  water  and  boney.      There 
^re  three  distinct  kinds  of  Mead,  the  simple,  the  compound,  and 
the  vinous.     Simple  Mead  is  made  of  water  and  honey,  which 
does  not  undergo  fermentation.      Compound  Mead  is  mixed 
with  fruits  and  essences,  in  order  to  give  it  a  flavour.     Vinous 
Mead  is  made  ^f  honey  and  water  which  is  subject  to  fermen- 
tation.    Simple  Mead  is  made  by  boiling  three  parts  of  water 
to  one  of  honey  ;  the  honey  may  be  increased  or  diminished  to 
the  taste.     The  process  is  over  a  slow  fire  until  one  third  is  e- 
vaporated,  then  skimmed  and  put  into  a  cask,  until  the  cask 
is  full.  After  three  or  four  days  it  will  be  fit  for  use.  The  cloths 
which  have  been  used  in  filtrating  the  honey  from  the  combs 
may  now  be  used  and  cleared  from  their  hoiiey  in  the  boiling 
-mead. 
To  make  CompoundMead,  during  the  boiling  process  of  simple 
mead,  add  half  a  pound  of  raisins,  stoned  and  seeded,  to  six 
pounds  of  honey,  or  four  pints  of  water  ;  boil  these  well  togeth- 
er until  the  raisins  become  soft,  and  the  four  pints  are  wasted, 
to  two :  strain  this  liquor  through  linen,  gently,  and  mix  it  with 
your  mead,  and  let  them  continue  to  boil ;    add  to  the  boiling 
mead  a  toasted  crust  of  bread  steeped   in  beer.      Skim  the 
mead  again;  remove  it  from  the  fire  and  when  cool,  barrel  it 
as  in  simple  mead,  with  an  ounce  of  the  salt  of  tartar  dissolved 
in  a  glass  of  brandy.    Let  the  barrel  be  full,  that  the  froth  may 
work  over,    and  continue    to  fill,  as  the    barrel  diminishes 
by  working.      When  this  subsides,  bung  close  and  stow  it  a- 
way  in  your  cellar ;    after  a   few  months  it  will  be  fit  for  use. 
To  give  a  variety  of  flavors  to  this  mead,  a  few  drops  of  the 
essence  of  cinnamon  may  be  mixed  with  tlie  salt  of  tartar  and 
brandy ;    some  lemon  peal,  syrup   of  gooseberries,  cherries, 
strawberries,  or  aromatic  flowers,  according  to  the  taste  of 
thoee  wlio  are  to  use  it. 


Qfil 
MANOFACTCRE    OF    MEAD, 

VinousMead  is  said  to  bo  the  beverage  of  all  the  no'^ernpeo- 
nle  of  Europe.  The  Russians  complete  thei^mead  with  heney, 
rheries"  strawberries,  goosberries,  and  -'^ernes-  they  soak 
these  fruits  several  days  in  cleor  ^f ''  to«h>ch  they  add 
some  virgin  honey,  and  a  piece  of  bread  soaked  in  beer  The 
bamls  are  placed  in  a  room  18  to  25  degreesof  heat  day  and 
night.  The  fermentation  commences  in  s,x  or  e^htdays  and 
Usu  about  six  weeks,  spontaneously ;  it  isthen  fit  for  use,  but 
increases  its  value  by  age. 

The  French  imitate  with  Mead  the  choices  wines,  such  as 
Malaga,  Rota,  Muscat,  Constantia,  &c.  The  beverage  is  said 
not  to  be  unhealthy. 

It  may  be  considered  that  by  substituting  the  delicious  bev^ 
era.e  of  Metheglin  and  Mead  for  distilled  liquors,  an  immense 
sX  of  health  and  expence  maybe  made  by  those  who,  by 
habitfwouldmakesomekind  of  stimulating  ^P-^^'^.XTto 
articl'e  of  sustenance;  it  may  also  be  ^he  means  of  add^^^^  to 
the  value  of  honey;  by  converting  some  part  of  it  to  those  U 
auors  for  market. 


OH0 

ASRrCUirURAL   EMATS, 


TlIRESHI.NGV 


When  the  threshing  ofgrain  is  performed-  with  flails,  it  is 
dow  and  hard  work.  Farmers  in  some  parts  of  our  country 
thresh  with  a  roller,  which  turns  on  a  centre  at  one  end  and 
^hich  ,s  small  and  confined  to  the  iioor  at  that  enrbyan' iron 
pivot  oil  which  ,t  turn,,  and  the  other  end  is  large  in  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  ofthe  circle  which  it  makes  It  is  drawn 
by  ahorse,  and  IS  usually  of  the  length  of  about  twel™  feet 
It  IS  set  full  ofiittle  square  pieces  of  wooden  teeth    lln^™ 

perfice  ofthe  roller.  With  this  a  man  and  horse  itis  said 
will  thresh  out  about  twelve  bushels  of  wheat  in  a  dJ  ' 

put  in  use.  Sir  John  Sinclair  observes,  that  the  threshinsr  ma- 
chine IS  considered  to  be  the  most  vduable  imp lemenf  t"at 
r'r:  *--,'>-7-^-<l,  and  states  tlie  follo^  a     a- 

^fld  ?^    ™""""-     "'■      From  the  superiority  of 

tiie  mode,  one  twentieth  part  more  is  o-nmprl  fr^J  *u 

quantitrof  straw  than  by?he«ldTsMoSrme«iod  t  The' ' 
work  IS  done  much  more  expeditiously.  3.  The  grain  is  Teas 
subjec  to  injury.  4.  Seed  can  be  produced  without  ^ctty 
from  the  new  crop.  5.  The  markets  may  be  supplied  with 
gram  sooner  m  tunes  of  scarcity.  6.  The  straw  softened  by 
themJl,.smoreusefulia  feeding  cattle.  7.  If  a  stock  of 
corn  be  heated,  it  may  be  threshed  in  a  day  an.  the  gra  n  pre 

fromlT'"'"^-  '•  ^''^"'^'^^''ingmmiessenslheinl,; 
from  smutty  gram.      And  9.  By  the  same  machine,  the  grah^ 

fr:LtTar  ''°™*^^'^^'^^"^^"'^"  --'^'^  -' - 

tZtw  ^'""S!'"^''  Encylopedia,  gives  a  description  of  a 
threshing  machine  invented  by  Mr.  Meckle,  which  on  a  large 
scale,  and  driven  by  water,  threshes,  fans,  and  cleans  wheat. 


THRESHIKG.  '26^ 

at  the  rate  of  sixty  "bushels  an  hour.  On  a  smaller  scale,  work- 
ed by  two  horses  and  three  hands  to  attend  to  it,  this  machine 
will  thresh  and  clear  sixty  bushels  of  wheat,  or  double  that 
quantity  of  oats,  in  eight  hours.  Rollers  or  small  mill  stones 
are  added  to  many  of  these  machines  for  crushi.ig  or  grinding 
grain.  Knives  for  cutting  hay,  he  obsi^rves,  might  be  added, 
Mr.  Elihue  Hotchkiss,  of  Brattleborough,  Vermont,  has  invent- 
ed and  taken  a  patent  for  a  threshing  machine,  from  the  Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural  Society,  in  1818.  The  Society  like- 
wise purchased  the  patent  right  for  Massachusetts,  and  it  may 
be  found  am.ong  the  implements  belonging  to  that  Society. 

A  remark  may  be  made  relating  to  the  threshing  machine, 
which  has  been  mentisned,  that  is  applicable  to  the  economy 
of  all  labor-saving  machines ;  which  is,  that  their  object  is  not 
to  encourage  habits  of  indolence,  or  any  exemption  from  those 
of  the  most  indefatigable  industry.  Let  all  the  labor  be  saved 
which  can  be  effected  by  the  intelligence  and  ingenuity  of  man, 
and  still,  in  the  progress  of  agricultural  miprovements,  enough 
will  be  found  to  engage  the  whole  attention,  and  give  emplo'}'- 
ment  to  all  his  energies.  The  most  perfect  state  of  agricultur- 
al improvements,  is  not  to  be  expected,  without  the  intellectual 
powers  of  man  are  called  into  action,  te  aid  and  facilitate  his 
labors.. 


t6i  AGRICULTURAL   ESSATS. 


General  Remarks   on  the  objects  of  imfrovins  t>tJK 
Agricultural  Economy. 


The  first  object  to  be  answered  by  efforts  to  increase  the 
productive  powers  of  the  soil,  is  to  promote  the  interest  and 
increase  the  comfors  of  the  present  generation.  Another,  and 
perhaps  not  the  least  important  one,  is,  to  form  the  habits  of 
posterity  for  encountering  the  evils  of  a  crowded  population. 
With  respect  to  the  Srst,  it  is  very  obvious,  that  if  the  farmer 
could  obtain  as  much  or  more  produce  from  one  third  or  one 
half  of  the  land  he  cultivates,  whether  it  be  fifty,  an  hundred, 
or  any  greater  number  of  acres,  and  that  too  with  the  same 
expense  of  labor,  he  would  thereby  make  a  clear  saving  of 
capital  to  the  value  of  the  one  half  or  two  thirds  of  the  land 
he  possesses,  which  he  might  rent  or  otherwise  dispose  of. 
I'hat  he  may  make  this  saving  of  capital,  is  proved  from  nu- 
merous experiments.  It  is  often  observed,  that  those  farmers 
in  our  country,  who  have  the  fewest  acres,  generally  get  the 
best  living.  They  do  uctually  derive  more  produce  from  their 
soil ;  and  possess  more  of  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of 
life.  These  spend  their  whole  time,  we  will  suppose,  in  culti" 
vataig  their  smaller  number  of  acres;  so  also  does  he  who 
possesses  the  larger  farm.  The  farmer  having  smaller  enclo- 
sures makes  a  saving  in  the  article  of  fence,  a  less  quantity  of 
seed  is  required,  a  saving  in  the  expense  of  ploughing,  and  a 
saving  of  taxes.  Although  the  former  does,  and  ought  to 
spend  his  whole  time  in  the  cultivation  of  his  soil,  yet  a  much 
less  capital  is  required  to  render  his  labors  successful,  than 
would  be  to  cultivate  one  half,  or  two  thirds  more  land.  It  is 
often,  too,  for  want  of  sufficient  capital,  that  the  farmer  who  is 
ambitious  of  possessing  a  large  farm,  that  he  may  appear  to  be 
rich,  often  fails  of  success  ;  not  having  sufficient  stock  to  work 
his  lands  properly,  nor  cattle  enough  to  furnish  manure,  nor 
money  to  purchase  the  articles  he  ought  to  possess,  to  make 


FMPROVING    OUR  AGRICULTURAL    ECONOMY.  2G^, 

the  cultivation  of  his  soil  profitable.  For  this  reason  we  often 
gee  respectable,  intelligent,  and  industrious  farmers  living  in  a 
state  of  penury  and  hard  labor  :  and  at  last,  from  some  unfavor- 
able seasons,  and  other  incidental  misfortunes,  sinking  under 
the  weight  of  accumulated  butdens. 

There  are,  it  is  true,  many  farmers  scattered  over  our  wide 
extended  country,  who  possess  c|pital  sufficient,  and  whose 
wisdom  and  industry  enable  them  to  cultivate  extensive  iarms 
with  success.  But  the  establishments  of  that  class  of  farmers 
by  the  policy  of  our  government,  are  liable  to  be  dissolved,  to 
be  subdivided  among  their  descendants,  and  eventually  among 
other  citizens.  It  is  to  the  wisdom,  and  success  of  the  small 
kind  owner,  the  common  farmer,  that  our  republic  will  event- 
ually owe  its  prosperity,  the  dignity  of  its  character,  and  the 
perpetuity  of  its  privileges.  The  occupancy  of  many  very  large 
farms  by  individuals,  can  never  be  expected  to  characterise  the 
prosperity  of  ouj  Republic.  The  value  and  respectability  of 
our  population  will  diminish  in  proportion  to  the  unequal  distri- 
bution of  our  lands. 

But  our  farmers  are  continually  hazarding  the  loss  of 
the  lands  they  possess,  by  cultivating  so  much,  and  in  such 
a  manner,  that  no  one  acre  yields  to  them  an  adequate 
remuneration  for  their  toil  and  expense.  Their  embarrass- 
ments consequently  accumulate,  untill  they  are  forced  to  sell 
their  farms  to  enable  them  to  meet  the  claims  of  their  creditors  ; 
or  if  they  are  not  driven  to  this  extremity,  they  are  often  sub- 
jected to  the  evil  of  toiling  through  the  year,  without  obtaining 
from  their  industry  a  competency  to  defray  the  current  expen- 
ses of  their  living. 

It  is  believed  that  on  the  same  number  of  acres,  the  expense 
of  raising  a  poor  crop  is  generally  nearly  as  much  as  that  of 
raising  a  large  one.  There  is  the  same  expended  in  fencing — 
the  same  in  taxes — the  same  quantity  of  seed  sown — and  per- 
haps nearly  the  same  expended  in  ploughing — and  the  same, 
or  more,  labor  in  threshing  ;— and  generally,  as  much  or  more- 
labor  in  the  whole  process  of  tillage. 


26G  AGRICULTURAL   ESSAYS. 

These  considerations,  one  would  suppose,  are  sufficient  to 
induce  our  farmers  to  improve  their  crops  by  a  more  thorough 
and  skilful  course  of  cultivation. 

It  is  well  known  that  there  are  men  in  our  country  who  are 
intelligent  and  industrious,  who  possess  perhaps  from  thirty  to 
fifty  acres  of  land,  and  yet  are  devoting  their  services  to  the 
concerns  of  their  neighbors,  for  the  avowed  leason,  that  they 
caniot  support  their  families  on  so  small  an  extent  of  land.  But 
the)^and  most  other  farmers  in  our  country ,have  yet  to  learn  the 
productive  power  of  a  perfectly  cultivated  soil.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  seeking  wealth  by  increasing  the  number  of  their  a- 
cres,  it  is  hoped  they  will  be  induced  to  seek  it  in  better  modes 
of  husbandry*  It  is  believed  that,  as  a  general  truth,  it  may  be 
said  the  farms  throughout  New- England,  containing  one  hun- 
dred acres,  were  they  divided  into  thirds,  by  quantity  and  qual- 
ity, that  each  third  might,  by  suitable  cultivation,  be  made  to 
produce  more  than  the  whole  hundred  acre^do  at  present 

If  the  farmer,  who  barely  subsists  by  toiling  all  the  year  oA 
one  hundred,  or  one  hundred  and  fifty  acres  of  land,  thinks  he 
cannot  afford  to  expend  a  cent  more  on  the  tillage  of  an  acre 
than  he  has  been  accustomed  to  do,  let  him  enable  himself  to 
do  it  by  saving  it  in  fencing,  leaving  out  some  of  his  lands  that 
bring  him  but  little  profit,  by  means  of  which  he  will  have  to 
pay  less  taxes  on  tillage  land  ;  or  he  may  turn  some  of  his  til- 
lage land  to  grass  ;  and  so  bestow  the  same  labor  and  manure 
on,  say,  a  third  less  land  in  tillage. 

If  lands  are  naturally  so  unproductive,  or  so  badly  cultivated, 
a?  not  to  yield  to  the  owner  a  reasonable  profit  for  his  labor 
and  capital  employed,  it  would  be  much  better  to  abandon 
them  altogether,  or  bestow  more  labor  and  manure  on  only  a 
part  of  th^n,  and  let  the  remaining  part  be  appropriated  as  a 
pasture  for  cattle  or  sheep. 

A  renovation  in  the  general  system  of  agricultural  economy 
hjay  not  be  expected  until  the  habits  of  our  farmers,  formed 


IMPROVING  OVR  AGRICULTURAL  ECONOMY.      267 

under  the  influence  of  tradition  and  prejudice,  shall  many  of 
them  be  exploded ;  nor  until  we  shall  begin  duly  to  appreciate 
the  importance  of  forming  our  own  habits,  as  well  as  those  of 
our  posterity,  for  encountering  the  evils  of  a  crowded  popula- 
tion. 

This  consideration  presents  an  object  of  vast  importance. 
In  the  Eastern  World,  those  evils  have  began  to  press,  when 
the  habits  and  manners  of  the  people  were  formed ;  and  so 
formed  as  to  aggravate  and  increase,  rather  than  to  avert 
them.  They  probably  were  governed  by  the  influence  of  the 
same  error  that  we  now  are.  The  farmer  who  possessed  only 
an  hundred  acres,  and  had  a  number  of  sons,  did  not  think  him- 
self able  to  provide  a  competent  agricultural  establishment  for 
only  one.  The  others,  if  tkey  were  not  educated  for  some  of 
the  learned  professions,  were  either  sent  to  the  army,  or  en- 
gaged in  commercial  or  mechanical  pursuits,  to  depend  for 
support  on  the  casualties  and  caprice  of  customers  ;  or  on  the 
degrading  and  dependent  emploympnt  of  hired  servants. 

It  is  very  obvious  from  a  view  of  their  present  condition,  that 
no  calculation  has  been  made  throughout  most  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Europe,  to  provide  for  the  evils  of  a  crowded  population,  by 
engaging  the  laboring  class  of  their  citizens  in  developing  the 
utmost  productive  resources  of  their  soil.  For  while  they 
have  vast  forests,  as  well  as  extensive  tracts  of  valuable  land 
lying  in  an  uncultivated  state,  not  more  than  one  sixth  part  of 
her  population  is  employed  in  practical  agriculture,  and  a  great 
proportion  of  it  doomed  to  the  most  abject  state  of  servitude 
and  penury. 

The  American  people  are  too  much  inclined  to  form  the 
habit  of  the  rising  generation  for  other  than  agricultural  pur- 
suits ;  too  many  had  rather  see  their  sons  engaged  in  some 
specnlative  pursuits,  by  vvhich  they  may  chance  to  live,  without 
the  drudgery  of  the  field,  rather  than  settle  down  on  fifteen  or 
twenty  acres  of  land,  to  "seize  the  plough  and  greatly  indepen- 
dent live."    We  have  in  our  republic  too  many  professional 


rbO  AfiRiCULtURAL    E5^AY4. 

naen,  too  many  mechanics,  too  many  commercial  men,  and  too 
many  soldiers ;  as  well  as  too  many  who,  by  the  policy  of  our 
government,  6r  the  indulgence  of  their  fathers  or  guardians, 
"ure  permitted  to  waste  the  vigor  of  their  youth,  without  any 
ostensible  object  of  pursuit,  which  may  prepare  them  for  use- 
fulness. 

In  this  state  of  things  our  larger  farms  are  not  cultivated  as 
'they  ought  to  be,  and  our  small  ones,  though  well  cultivated 
'when  in  the"  occupancy  of  wise  and  industrious  husbandmen,yet 
"ure  frequently  almost  entirely  neglected,' because  they  are  not 
supposed  to  be  large  enough  to  make  their  cultivation  a  suf- 
ficient object.  It  has  been  remarked  that  farmers  are  often 
ruined  because  they  have  too  great  plenty  of  land  in  their 
possession.  This  may  be  true,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  it 
'should  continue  to  be  so  any  more  than  that  being  rich  should 
necessarily  make  a  man  poor.  The  man  ^  who  possesses 
timch  land,  should  clear  and  improve  no  more  than  he  can  cul- 
tivate to  advantage. 

The  author  of  these  essays  does  not  pretend  that  new  theo- 
ries will  give  to  agricultural  operations  any  sudden  and  extra- 
ordinary impulse,  in  the  developement  of  national  or  mdividu- 
al  resources.  Nature  has  given  nothing  to  man  without  labor. 
The  truth  of  this  has  been  attested  by  the  efforts  which  were 
necessary  in  cbmpihng  this  small  volume;  in  which,  however 
judiciously  the  information  it  contains,  may  appear  to 
have  been  selected,  it  presents  only  an  introductory  view 
to  a  science,  in  the  pursuit  of  which,  we  may  expect  to  make, 
indefinite  progression.  Notwithstanding  how  much  may  be  at- 
tributed to  the  expediency  of  studying  agriculture  as  a  science, 
it  is  believed  that  it  is  not  so  much  for  the  want  of  knowledge 
"  or  of  theories,  as  of  attention,  of  proper  emulation,  of  industry, 
and  economy,  that  it  is  not  yet  in  a  condition  as  much  improved 
and  prosperous  as  it  probably  would  be,  and  as  it  should  be, 
if  we  would  act  with  a  wise  reference  to  the  interests  of  our 
posterity,  and  ©f  our  country. 


-.  IMPROVING  OUR  AGRICULTURAL  ECONOMY^  */^6^ 

'  One  important  object  of  recording  the  discoveries  and  ex- 
periment of  agriculturaUsts,  may  be  to  put  farmers  upon 
thinking  about  their  proper  business,  and  to  excite  emulatioa 
among  them,  so  as  to  callinto  action  the  talent  and  resource 
they  possess.  When  this  is  accomplished,  we  may  confident^ 
ly  expect  aU  other  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  theiSSi«iv&e  «il 
be  removed^ 


t2 


'^0  agricultural  essay?. 

Manufacturing  thc  Sap  of  the  Maple. 

The  manufacturing  sugar  from  the  maple,  is  an  important 
item  in  the  system  of  domestic  economy.  And  as  our  young 
men  are  often  engaged  in  clearing  our  forests,  it  is  important 
that  they  are  not  only  apprisedof  the  importance  of  preserving 
the  sugar  maple,but  that  they  should  understand  the  process  of 
making  the  greatest  profit  from  its  juices. 

Seasons  fou  tapping.  By  trials  made  in  the  month  of 
February,  it  will  readily  be  discovered  when  this  valuable 
tree  ought  to  be  bored,  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  the  sap, 
as  in  that  month  either  earlier  or  later,  according  to  the  sea- 
son,  it  generally  begins  to  yield  a  sufficient  quantity  for  com- 
jnencing  the  business. 

Tapping  or  boring.  Four  hundred  trees,  each  bored  with 
two  holes,as  nearly  as  may  be  on  the  south  side  :  and  also  with 
two  holes  on  the  north  side  of  the  tree  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  with  screw  augers,  from  two  to  four  quarters  of  an 
inch,  according  to  the  size  of  the  tree ;  and  towards  the  middle 
of  the  season,  a  like  number  of  trees  to  be  bored  in  the  same 
manner,  is  recommended  as  abetter  mode  for  the  management 
«f  four  hands,  than  if  the  whole  number  of  eight  bundled  trees 
were  tapped  at  the  first  running  of  the  sap.  This  calculation 
Biay  of  course  be  varied  according  to  the  number  of  trees,  or 
kands  employed.  The  sap  of  the  second  parcel  tapped,  will  be 
found  richer,  and  more  productive  than  if  a  part  had  been  ex- 
tracted earlier.  The  auger  should  enter  the  tree  at  first,  not 
»ore  than  three  quarters  of  an  inch  :  the  holes  may  at  several 
times,  be  deepened  to  the  extent  of  two  inches  and  a  half,  as 
the  manner  of  the  sap  running  may  render  necessary. 
The  hole  should  be  made  slanting  or  descending,  so  that  the 
sap  may  run  freely  in  frosty  weather,  and  not  by  a  slow  motion 


MANUFACTURE    OP   MAPLE    SAP. 


271 


be  liable  to  freeze  in  the  mouth  of  the  orifice.  In  these  holes 
spouts  should  be  fixed,  to  project  from  the  tree,  from  eight  to 
twelve  inches,  and  not  to  enter  the  tree  more  than  about  half 
an  inch;  as  the  farther  they  enter  the  more  the  running  of 
the  sap  is  obstructed  ;  they  should  be  prepared,  in  readiuess 
for  the  season,  of  elder  and  sumach. 

Preserving  the  sap.  In  the  early  part  of  the  season  the 
sap  will  keep  two  or  three  days  without  injuring  ;  but  as  the 
spring  advances,  it  will  be  necessary  to  boil  the  sap  the  day 
after  it  iscollected,  or  it  may  ferment  and  sour.  Lime. — To 
every  half  barrel,  or  fifteen  gallon  kettle,  a  tea  spoonful  of 
slacked  lime  should  be  put  in,  while  the  sap  is  fermenting, 
and  before  it  boils  :  this  promotes  the  rising  of  the  scum  and 
forming  of  the  grain.  Boiling.-^ A  smart  fire  should  be 
kept  up,  while  the  sap  is  boiling.  As  the  scum  rises,  be  careful 
to  skim  it  off.  When  the  liquor  is  reduced  one  half  in  quanti- 
ty, lade  the  second  kettle  from  the  end  into  the  end  one,  and 
when  the  contents  of  three  or  four  kettles  can  be  contained  in 
one,  let  the  whole  be  laded  into  that,  at  the  end  ;  flUing  up 
the  empty  kettles  without  delay,  with  fresh  sap.  As  the  li- 
quor in  the  end  kettle,  removed  from  tJiose  which  have  been 
mentioned,  becomes  a  syrup,  it  should  be  strained  through  a 
good  blanket  or  woolen  cloth  ;  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
suffer  it  to  boil  so  long  as  to  be  too  thick  to  be  strained  in  this 
manner.  It  should,  when  thus  cleansed  from  its  impurities, 
stand  in  buckets  or  other  suitable  vessels,  twelve  hours  or 
more,  that  the  particles  of  lime,  and  other  remaining  sediment 
may  settle  to  the  bottom ;  after  which  it  should  be  so  gently 
poured  ofi*into  a  kettle  or  boiler,  as  not  to  carry  with  it  any 
of  theie  settlings.  However  they  need  not  be  wholly  lost, 
they  will  mostly  contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar  and 
eyrup  ;  by  pouring  fresh  sap  on  them,  stirring  them  well  to- 
gether, and  suffering  them  to  stand  a  while  to  settle,  a  great 
part  of  the  valuable  sweets  contained  in  such  sediment  may  be 
saved.    It  may  be  further  noted,  that  when  the  sap  is  weak. 


-^78 


•  Aa*ie*LTHRAL    £S8AT^^ 


which  is  generally  the  case  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  eea- 
son,  it  requires  more  boiling,  and  a  higher  proof,  than  that 
collected  earlier  and  of  greater  strength. 

The  above  method,  on  actual  experiment,  is  said  to 
have  answered  well  pbut  a  judicious  su^ar  boiler  believes, 
.hat  It  would  be  best  to  avoid  letting  the  syrup  stand 
twelve  hours  after  being  strained  through  a  blanket:  when 
the  process  is  begun,  the  sooner  it  is  completed,  in  his  opinion, 
the  better  ;  the  design  of  its  so  standing  for  twelve  hours  be- 
ing chiefly  intended  to  give  sufficient  time  for  the  particles  of 
hme  and  other  sediment  to  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the  kettle. 
It  is  proposed  that  Jime  should  be  mixed  •  with  a  quantity  of 
fresh  sap  in  the  evening,  and  be  well  stirred  ;  the  large  parti- 
cles oflimeinthis  case,  will  be  likely  to-subside  before  morn- 
ing, and  the  clear  sap  so  impregnated,  may  be  mixed  the  next 
morning,  in  proper  proportions,  in  the  several  kettles,  observ- 
ing however,  that  in  this  mode,  more  lime  will  be  necessary, 
as  less  of  its  strength  will  be  extracted  by  cold  than  byiiot 
water. 


Graining.  The  syrup  having  stood  twelve  hours  orupwar^Ifi, 
then  to  be  gently  poured  into  a  kettle  or  boiler,  as  above  men- 
tioned ;  which  would  be  best  placed  over  afire  made  of  char- 
coal, as  before  hinted  ;  unless  the  kettle  is  so  fixed  in  a  firnace, 
Grin  such  a  situation  that  the  flame  can  be  confined  to  the 
bottom  ;  for  if  it  be  suffered  to  pass  on  the  sides,it  endangers  the 
syrup's  being  burned.  This  operation  should^lso  be  performed 
with  a  smart  fire,  tobeuniformlyand  equally  kept  up,  in  which, 
as  well  as  in  boiling  the  green  saj^  the  use  of  butter,' hog's  lard, 
and  other  fat,  is  notonly  very  useful  and  advantageous,  but  abso^ 
lutely  necessary.  'When  m  the  course  of  boiling,  the  sap  rises 
towards  the  top,  apiece  of  fat  equal  in  sise  to  a  small  nutmeg 
thrown  in,  will  keep  it^own.  •  Particular  care  should  be  taken 
by  these  means  to  prevent  the  risigig  of  the  syrup  when  grain- 
ing, which  may  require  a  largerproporcion  of  Dutter,  &c.  It 
Is  found  that  the  evaporation  is  much  more  expeditious,  and  iit 


MANUFACTURE    OF    MAPLE    SAP. 


273 


^Is'believed  that  the  quantity  of  sug^ar  made  is  larger,  when  a 
■careful  guar€  is  kept  up  to  prevent  the  sap,  and  particularly 
"the  syrup  when  graining,  from  rising,  by  the  timely  intro- 
-duction  of  a  piece  of  fat  as  above  described.  To  form  ^  judg- 
'toent  when  the  syrup  is  sufficiently  boiled,  take  out  with 
quickness  the  stirring  stick  v/hich  is  constantly  kept  in  the 
boiler  for  the  purpose  of  takiHg  the  proof,  rub  some  of  the  sy- 
rup off  the  lower  end  of  it  with  the  thumb,  and  if  on  applying  the 
finger  thereto,  it  draws  into  a  thread,  it  may  be  deemed  in  a 
proper  state  to  be  laded  icto  a  tub  or  cooler.  Then  it  should 
be  forthwith,  and  incessantly  stirred  with  a  stick  about 
three  inches  broad,  until  the  grain  can  be  felt  between  the  fin- 
der and  the  thumb,  v/hen  it  is  in  a  fit  state  to  be    poured  intd 

the  moulds. 

It  requires  much  practical  information,  and  the  exercise  of 
sound  discretion,  to  determine  from  the  different  appearances 
of  the  syrup  in  the  time  of  boiling,  the  moment  when  some 
material  movements,  or  changes  ought  to  be  mad*. 

Claying,  or  wUttning  the  Sugar.  To  promote  the  molasses 
passing  more  freely  from  the  sugar,  when  draining  in  the 
moulds,  and  to  improve  its  color,  in  two  or  three  days  after  the 
moulds  are  unstopped  at  the  lower  end,  mix  white  clay  with 
water,  so  as  to  reduce  it  to  a  thin  mortar ;  with  this  cover  the  ' 
top  of  the  moulds  one  inch  and  a  half  thick  :  when  this  cover- 
ing appears  dry,  remove  it,  and  supply  the  place  with  a  fresh 
covering  of  about  two  inches  thick. 

Although  it -16  apprehended  the  use  of  clay,  as  above  set 
forth,  particularly  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  will  be 
found  beneficial,  it  may,  however,  be. prudent  to  continue  or 
decline  the  practice,  according  to  the  effect  or  use  it  appears 
to  be  of,  on  a  careful  trial ;  the  quantity  of  clay  must  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  manner  in  which  the  sugar  has  been  boiled  ; 
if  high  boiled,  it  will  require  much  more  clay  than  if  boiled 
.  lew.    It  is  also  thought  the  use  ©f  clay  lessen  the  quantity  of 


274 


AGRICULTURAL    ESSAYS. 


sugar,  perhaps  one  fifth  part,  and  may  be  more  or  less 
according  to  the  knowledge  of  the  person  who  undertakes 
the  busmess.  It  may  be  also  remarked,  that  if  the  quantity 
of  sugar  be  lessened  in  weight  by  claying,  one  fifth  part, 
it  is  not  to  be  concluded  that  the  whole  of  this  fifth  part 
will  be  eventually  lost ;  there  will  be  more  syrup  than 
there  otherwise  would  have  been,  independent  of  the  water 
from  the  clay  that  passes  through  the  sugar 

Molasses  and  vinegar.  When  the  trees  of  the  second 
tapping  become  poor  in  quantity  and  quality,  which  may  be 
about  the  tenth  of  April,  or  perhaps  sooner,  then  the  number  of 
fresh  tapped  trees  will  yield  a  eap  ef  which  may  be  made  good 
molasses,  and  also  excellent  vinegar.  In  all  sugar  plantations, 
it  will  be  advantageous  to  cut  out  the  different  sorts  of  timber 
which  grow  intermixed  with  the  sugar  maple,  and  even  those 
of  that  species  which  are  not  thriving,  promising  trees.  The 
timber  so  cut  out  will  serve  for  fuel  for  the  boilers,  and  leave 
greater  openings  for  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  enter,  which  have 
a  tendency  to  improve  the  value  of  the  remaining  trees.  The 
ground  so  cleared  of  all  except  the  maple  tree,  it  has  been  ob- 
served, is  particularly  favorable  for  pasture  and  the  g^rowth  of 
grass. 

It  appears  not  to  be  ascertained,  that  this  tree  becomes  im- 
poverished by  repeated  tappings.  There'are  instances,  partic- 
ularly among  the  old  settlements  on  North  River,  of  trees 
which  have  been  tapped  for  fiftyyears  or  upwards,  and  contin- 
ue to  yield  their  sap  in  the  season,  equal  to  any  brought  into 
use  of  later  time.  It  is  asserted  with  confidence  by  some,  that 
those  trees  by  use  become  more  valuable,  yielding  a  sap  of  a 
richer  quality. 

The  above  account  from  the  Encyclopedia,  may  aid  the  in- 
experienced manufacturer  of  sugar,  until  he  may  by  practice, 
discover  other  and  more  perfect  modes. 

It  is  said  all  sorts  of  maple  may  be  propagated  by  cuttinge. 
And  that  if  they  be  cut  from  the  trees  before  the  buds  begin  to 


FINING   MAPLE    SUGAR.  275 

swell,  and  before  the  ground  be  lit  to  receive  them^  they'may 
be  wrapped  in  moss,  and  put  in  a  cool  place  where  they  may 
be  kept  a  month  or  five  weeks  without  injury.  The  trees  may 
also  be  propagated  by  sowing  the  seeds  commonly  called  kegs= 


Fining  Maple  Sugar. 

The  following  account  from  Memoirs  of  the  Board  of  Agri- 
culture, N.  Y.  relates  solely  to  the  operations  of  reducing  tlie 
syrup  to  sugar.  When  the  syrup  is  reduced  to  the  consistence 
of  West-India  molasses,  set  it  away  till  it  is  perfectly  cold,  and 
then  mix  with  it  the  clarifying  matter,  which  is  milk  or  eggs ; 
the  latter  are  said  to  be  preferable,  because  when  heated,  the 
whole  of  it  curdles  ;  wherens  milk  produces  only  a  small  por- 
tion  of  curds.  The  eggs  should  be  thoroughly  beaten  and  ef- 
fectually mixed  wuth  the  syrup  while  cold.  The  syrup  should 
then  be  heated  till  just  before  it  would  boii,  when  the  curd  ri- 
ses,  bringing  with  it  every  impurity,  even  the  coloring  matter, 
or  a  great  portion  of  it,  which  it  had  received  from  the  smoke, 
kettles,  buckets,  or  reserviors.  The  boiling  should  be  check- 
ed, and  the  scum  carefully  removed,  when  the  syrup  should  be 
slowly  turned  into  a  thick  woolen  strainer,  and  left  to  run 
through  at  leisure.  It  is  remarked  by  the  author  of  this  ac- 
count, that  a  great  proportion  of  the  sugar  that  is  made  in  our 
country,  is  not  strained  after  cleansing ;  which  he  thinks  is  an 
error.  And  observes,  that  if  examined  in  a  wine  glass,  innu- 
merable minute,  and  almost  imperceptible  particles  of  curd,  will 
be  seen  floating  in  it,  which,  if  not  removed,  render  it  liable  t© 
burn,  and  otherwise  injure  the  taste  and  color  of  it.  A  flannel 
strai/er,  he  observes,  is  not  only  better  than  a  linen  one,  but  is 
indispensable.  One  pint  of  eggs  to  a  pailful  of  syrup  is  amply 
sufficient;  and  half  as  much  will  do  very  well.  The  syrup  is 
then  put  into  another  kettle,  which  has  been  made  perfectly 
clean  aiid  bright,  when  it  is  placed  over  a  quick,  but  solid  fire, 


97t>  .  AGRI^LTURAL    ESSAYS. 

and  soon  rises,  but  is  kept  from  overflowing"  by  being-  laded 
with  a  long  dipper.  When  it  is  sufficiently  reduced,  (which 
may  be  ascertained  by  dropping  it  from  the  point  of  a  knife, 
while  hot,  into  one  inch  of  cold  water — if  done,  it  will  not  im- 
mediately mix  with  the  water,  but  lies  at  the  bottom  in  a  round 
flat  drop,}  it  is  taken  from  the  fire,  and  the  foaming  allowed  to 
subside.  A  thick  white  scum,  which  is  useable,  is  removed, 
and  the  sugar  turned  into  a  cask,  placed  on  an  inclined  platform,, 
and  left  undisturbed  for  six  weeks  or  longer,  when  it  should  be 
tapped  in  the  bottom,  and  the  molasses  drawn  off.  It  will  draio 
perfectly  dry  in  a  few  days. 

The  sugar  made  in  this  way  is  said  to  be  very  nearly  as 
white  as  lump  sugar,  and  beautifully  grained.  It  is  observed 
by  the  same  writer,  that  two  hands  will  sugar  off  250  pounds 
m  a  day.  And  that  from  the  scum  taken  off  in  cleansing,  he 
usually  made,  by  diluting  and  re-cleansing,  one  sixth  as  much 
-iugar  as  he  had  at  first,  and  of  an  equal  quality. 

It  is  not,  he  observes,  of  much  consequence,  as  it  regards  the 
quality  of  the  sugar,  whether  care  be  taken  to  keep  the  sap 
clean  or  not.  The  points  in  which  the  greatest  error  is  com- 
mitted, are,  neglecting  to  use  a  flannel  strainer,  to  strain  after, 
cleansing  ;  to  have  the  sugaring  kettle  properly  cleansed  :  an* 
to  remove  the  white  scum  from  the  sugar,. 


Sowing. 


Some  remarks  have  been  made  in  these  essays  «a  the  sub- 
ject of  sowing,  or  properly  covering  seeds  committed  to  the 
earth  ;  but  as  it  is  of  great  importance  that  this  process  is  cor- 
rectly understood  and  practiced,  the  following  remarks  on  this 
subject,  from  the  New-England  Farmer,  are  too  pertinent  and 
interesting  to  be  omitted. 

"There  are  three  ways  of  seeding  the  ground :  1,  in  hills,  as 
it  is  called,  or  in  squares  ;  2,  in  drills,  or  continued  rows ;  and 
3,  in  the  broad  cast  method,  or  at  random  with  a  cast  of  the 
hand — which  last  method  is  always  termed  sowing.  The  first 
requires  the  least  quantity  of  seed,  the  last  the  greatest.  But 
the  crops  will  not  be  in  proportion  to  the  different  quantities  of 
seed. 

With  regard  to  sowing,  several  things  ought  to  be  attended 
to  ;  the  quality  or  goodness  of  the  seeds,  the  time  of  sowing 
them,  the  depth  that  is  best  for  them,  and  the  quantity  or  pro- 
portion of  seed  to  the  ground. 

The  quality  of  the  seed  should  be  ascertained,  in  order  to 
determine  the  quantity  that  is  proper  to  be  sown;  for  if  one 
tenth  part  of  the  seeds,  for  instance,  should  be  destitute  of  a 
vegetative  power,  a  tenth  part  more  of  such  seeds  should  be 
sown  than  the  usual  quantity,  supposing  the  seeds  to  be  in  per-, 
fection. 

In  order  to  determine  the  goodness  of  the  seed  to  be  sown* 
you  should  previously  take  fifty  grains,  at  random,  from  the 
parcel ;  sow  them  in  good  mould,  at  a  proper  depth,  and  care- 
fully observe  how  great  a  proportion  fail  of  coming  up.  They 
may  be  sown  in  a  pot,  ^nd  kept  in  a  warm  part  of  the  house, 
or  in  hot  bed,  that  the  farmer  may  have  timely  notice  of  the 
quality  of  his  seeds,  when  it  is  too  early  in  the  spring  to  do  it 
in  the  open  ground.  Many  have  missed  of  a  crop,  by  not  tak- 
ing thi«  |)recaution.    When  seeds  are  suspected  of  being  to« 


U78  AGRICtfLTCRAL   ESSAYS. 

old  to  vegetate,  this  previous  trial  should  by  no  means  be  neg- 
lected. 

But  if  we  wish  to  have  seeds  in  the  best  condition  for  sow- 
ing, they  should  be  well  ripened  on  their  plants,  before  they 
are  gathered  in;  afterwards  they  should  be  kept  perfectly  dry, 
that  they  may  not  contract  the  least  mouldiness ;  and  never  be 
secluded  from  the  air.  Mr.  Miller  found  that  air  was  absolute- 
ly necessary  to  maintain  the  principle  of  vegetation  in  seeds* 
Havmg  saved  a  parcel  of  fresh  seeds,  of  several  kinds,  he  took 
some  of  each,  and  sealed  them  up  in  glass  phials ;  the  other 
parts  of  the  same  seeds  he  put  into  bags,  and  hung  them  up  in 
a  dry  place,  in  a  free  air.  After  a  year  had  passed,  he  took 
some  of  the  seeds  from  each  phial  and  each  bag,  and  sowed 
them  at  the  same  time,  and  on  different  parts  of  the  same  bed. 
The  result  was,  that  almost  all  the  seeds  hd  took  out  of  the  bags 
grew  well,  but  of  those  which  had  been  kept  in  phials  not  one 
came  up.  His  discovery  was  further  confirmed  by  experiments 
afterwards.  How  careful  then  should  both  farmers  and  gar- 
deners be,  that  no  seed  designed  for  sowing,  be  kept  totally  se- 
cluded from  the  air. 

All  kinds  of  seeds  are  best  kept  in  their  pods  or  husks  ;  es- 
pecially they  should  be  so  kept  when  they  are  designed  to  be 
transported  to  distant  countries  or  places. 

Accordingly  some  of  the  best  writers  recommend  the  lying  of 
seed  wheat  in  the  sheaf,  to  the  time  of  sowing.  And  that  none 
but  the  best  of  the  grain  may  be  sown,  instead  of  threshing, 
it  is  advisable  to  strike  a  handful  at  a  time  gently  against 
a  post,  and  collect  what  falls  out ;  because  the  heaviest  and 
best  grain  is  always  the  most  easily  detached  from  the  ear. 

Being  furnished  with  good  seeds,  the  time  for  committing 
them  to  the  earth  must  in  a  great  measure  be  determined  by 
the  judgment  of  the  experienced  husbandman  ;  because,  from 
various  circumstances,  it  comes  to  pass,  that  the  true  time  ad- 
mits of  some  latitude.  The  time  for  spring  sowing  will  vary 
according  to  the  variation  of  the  forwardness  of  the  season  f 


SOWING.  279 

which  may  be  best  determined  by  the  respective  forwardness 
6f  trees  and  slvrubs. 

That  great  naturalist,  Linnseus,  did  not  approve  of  farmerti 
confining  themselves  to  certain  set  days  or  weeks,  for  commit- 
ting their  seeds  to  the  earth.  The  seasons  are  much  forward- 
er in  some  years  than  in  others.  He,  therefore,  recommends 
to  his  countrymen,  as  a  better  practice,  to  take  notice  at  what 
time  the  trees  unfold  their  leaves.  Nature  is  so  uniform  in  her 
operations,  that  the  forwardness  of  trees  is  an  unfailing  indica- 
tion of  the  forwardness  of  the  spring.  And  the  genial  warmth, 
which  causes  trees  and  shrubs  to  put  forth  their  leaves,  will  be 
sufficient  to  cause  seeds  to  vegetate. 

it  would  b6  desirable,  if  gentlemen  would  keep  and  regular- 
ly  publish  a  record  of  the  flowering  of  plants,  according  to  the 
example  exhibited  in  the  following  account  of  the  leafing  and 
blossoming  of  trees  and  shrubs,  which  was  taken  in  that  part 
of  New-Englaad  which  lies  in  the  44th  degree  of  latitude,  in 
the  spring  of  the  year  178^. 


Leafing. 

Blossoming. 

Gooseberry 

April  16. 

May  12. 

English  Willow    - 
Wild  Red  Cherry      - 

-    28. 

29. 

19. 

Lilac    -        -        -        - 

-        -    30, 

Currant     ,        -        - 

May    1. 

9. 

Alder  .        -        -        - 

-        -      5. 

Apple-tree 

.        -          6. 

25. 

Thorn-bush 

-      7. 

White  Birch      - 

8. 

White  Maple 

-      -    a 

Beech       .        -        - 

10. 

Plumb-tree  -        -        - 

.    12. 

Hazle 

-       .        14. 

Elm      -        -        •        - 

-    15. 

Summer  Pear    - 

17. 

32. 

Common  Red  Cherry    - 

-  la 

20. 

Damascene  Plumb     - 

> 

20 

GrevOak     - 

-    20. 

White  Oak 

,        28, 

280  AttllieFLTWRAli   ESSAYS. 

But  there  are  other  circumstances  to  be  taken  into  the  account 
which  may  further  vary  the  seaedn  for  spring  sowing.  A  light 
warm  soil  may  receive  the  seeds  earlier  than  one  that  is  strong 
tnd  moist  The  former  will  arrive  to  the  right  degree  of  dry- 
ness sooner  than  the  latter,  and  is  earlier  fit  for  the  operations 
•f  tillage.  And  this  is  certain,  that  seeds  that  require  the  ear- 
liest sowing,  must  not  be  sown  befoie  the  earth  can  be  well 
pulverized.  Neither  should  plants  that  are  easily  killed  by 
frost,  be  60  early  sown  as  to  be  up  till  the  spring  frosts  are 
past. 

If  seeds  are  sown  too  early,  or  when  the  ground  is  too  wet 
%nd  cold  for  them,  they  will  either  perish  or  fail  of  coming  up  J 
•r  if  they  come  up,  it  is  slowly,  so  that  the  plants  become  6tin^ 
ed  in  their  growth,  and  never  arrive  to  a  full  size.  If  the 
right  season  for  sowing  should  elapse,  the  husbandman  may 
accelerate  vegetation  by  steeping  the  seeds  in  a  ley  of  wood 
ashes,  or  other  proper  monstruum,  so  that  they  may  overtake 
in  their  growth  those  which  were  sown  in  the  right  season. 

The  depth  at  which  different  seeds  should  be  buried  in  the 
•oil,  is  various,  according  to  the  difference  in  seeds  and  soils, 
M.  Duhamel  found  by  experiment,  that  but  few  seeds  will 
come  up  at  all,  when  buried  deeper  than  nine  inches ;  that 
some  seeds  rise  very  well  from  the  depth  of  six  inches ;  and 
that  other  seeds  do  not  rise  at  all  when  they  are  more  than  two 
inches  under  the  surface.  And  in  general,  those  seeds  the 
body  of  which  are  thrown  above  the  surface  in  vegetating, 
ihould  have  the  less  quantity  of  soil  above  them,  that  they  may 
■ot  meet  with  too  much  resistance  in  rising  ;  such  as  kidney 
beans,  and  many  other  sorts.  Also  the  same  may  and  ought 
to  be  buried  deeper  in  a  light  and  dry,  than  in  a  heavy  and 
moist  soil.  When  the  ground  is  rolled  after  sowing,  the  seeds 
will  vegetate  the  nearer  to  the  surface.  And  therefore  they 
donot  need  to  be  sown  so  deep  as  when  the  rolling  is  omitted. 
To  d&termiDO  what  ia  tho  ri^ht  depth  iti  a  doubtful  case^  Mr. 


sowise. 


281 


Tull  hag  suggested  an  excellent  method :  Take  a  dozen  of 
sticks  for  guages  ;  mark  the  first  at  half  an  inch  from  the  end: 
the  next  at  an  inch  ;  and  so  on,  increasing  half  an  inch  to  each. 
Then  in  the  sort  of  ground  you  intend  to  sow,  make  a  row  of 
twenty  holes,  with  the  half  inch  guagc  ;  put  in  twenty  good 
seeds  and  cover  them,  and  stick  up  the  guage  at  the  end  of 
the  row.  Then  do  the  like  with  the  rest  of  the  sticks.  Ob- 
serve how  the  seeds  prosper  in  the  different  rows,  and  you 
will  discover  at  what  depth  that  kmd  of  seed  should  be  buried. 
This  experiment,  however  useful,  can  be  of  little  or  no  use  in 
the  old  field  husbandry  ;  for  in  the  broad  cast  way  of  sowing, 
the  seeds  will  be  differently  covered.  But  sbwing  fields  with 
the  driU,  in  equi-distant  rows,  when  horse-hoeing  is  not  in- 
tended, cannot  be  too  much  commended,  if  it  were  only  on  ac- 
count of  the  seed  that  may  be  saved  by  it.  Much  seed  is  wast- 
ed in  the  common  way  of  sowing.  For  some  of  the  seed  will 
be  so  deeply  covered  that  they  will  not  vegetate ;  some  will  be 
left  on  the  surface,  which  is  a  prey  for  birds,  and  perhaps 
leads  them  to-  scratch  up  some  of  the  rest:  some  will  lie  so 
near  the  surface  as  to  be  destroyed  by  variation  of  weather, 
being  alternately  wetted  or  scorched.  And  of  those  seeds 
that  grow,  some  rise  earlier  and  some  later,  so  that  the  crop 
does  not  ripen  equally.  The  seeds  will  fell  from  the  hands  of 
the  sower  too  thick  in  some  spots  and  too  thin  in  others,  by 
meuns  of  the  unevenness  of  the  surface  ;  and  the  harrowing 
will  perhaps  increase  the  inequality,  so  that  many  will  be  so 
crowded  as  to  be  unfruitful,  while  the  rest  have  more  room 
than  is  necessary.. 

But  when  the  seeds  are  put  in  with  the  drill,  they  will  rise 
nearly  together ;  not  so  much  so  as  one  seed  will  be  wast- 
ed or  lostr  supposing  them  sown  at  the  right  distance;  each 
one  may  have  so  much  room,  as  is  most  conducive  to  its 
growth  ;  no  starved  head  will  appear,  and  the  whole  will  ripen 
together.  Haifa  bushel  of  wheat,  or  even  a  less  quantity,  in 
this  way  will  seed  an  acre  sufficiently ;  which  would  be  a  greai» 
advantage  at  a  time  of  scarcity  of  seed.. 


282 


AGRKJULTURAL   ESSAT8. 


It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  quantity  of  seed  that  is 
best  to  be  sown  in  the  broad  cast  way.  Doubtless  it  should 
vary  according  to  circumstances.  When  seed  is  very  large 
^nd  full  grown,  two  bushels  may  not  be  more  than  equal 
to  one  that  is  small  and  pinched,  suppose  the  seeds  equally  dis- 
posed to  vegetate,  which  is  often  the  case.  For  the  true 
quantity  should  be  estimated,  rather  by  the  number  of  grains, 
than  by  measure  or  weight.  Not  that  pinched  grain  should 
be  sowed  except  in  ease  of  necessity.  For  it  may  be  expected 
that  the  most  pe  rfect  seeds  will  produce  the  best  plants. 

Rich  land  will  afford  nourishment  to  a  greater  number  of 
plants  than  that  which  is  poor.  But  if  by  furnishing  more 
Rourishment  it  will  increase  the  number  of  sprouts  from  a 
aingle  seed,  then  it  maybe  supposed  in  some  cases  of  sowing, 
a  less  quantity  of  seed  would  produce  more  plants  on  such 
land  than  could  be  cultivated  successfully  on  that  of  a  poorer 
soil.  Therefore,  the  proportion  of  seed  sown  on  a  rich  or  poor 
fioil,  must  be  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  seed,  aa  well  as 
the   relative  strength  of  the  soils. 

The  sowmg  of  winter  grain  is  perhaps  a  more  difficult  matter 
to  manage  rightly  than  vernal  seeding.  Mr.  Deane  thinks  far- 
mers mistake  their  interests  when  they  persist  in  sowing  win- 
ter  grain  at  a  certain  time  of  the  year,  let  the  weather  be  ever 
so  hot,  and  the  ground  be  ever  so  dry.  By  heat  and  dryness 
the  seeds  will  sometimes  be  so  scorched  in  the  soil,  that  not  a 
fourth  part  of  them  ever  come  up.  Therefore,  if  a  drought 
happen  at  the  usual  sowing  season,  it  will  be  needful  to  defer 
sowing  till  some  rain  has  fallen,  and  the  soil  has  got  a  due  de- 
free  of  moisture.  How  long  it  may  be  best  to  wait  for  such  a 
favorable  opportunity,  must  be  left  to  the  jndgment  of  the  ex- 
perienced farmer.  Also,  a  spot  that  has  been  newJy  cleared 
by  burning,  may  be  sown  later  in  autumn  than  other  land.  It 
ought  to  be  sown  later,  if  the  growth  before  winter  be  wished 
'to  be  only  equally  forward  ;  for  the  ashes  will  so  quicken  the 
<?egetation,  that  if  it  be  seeded  early,  it  will  attain  to  too  large 


SOWING.  28S 

ti'growth  before  winter.  It  is,  however,  believed  by  many,  that 
early  sown  grain  is  not  so  likely  to  be  injured  by  tlie  frosts^, 
which  are  more  likely  to  disengage,  and  throw  out  of  the 
ground,  and  thereby  destroy  the  roots  of  grain  of  less  size  and 
strength  than  those  of  earlier  sown  grain.  But,  perhaps  it  will 
be  found  to  be  a  good  rule,  to  sow  grain  the  earlier,  in  propor- 
tion as  the  winters  are  longer  and  colder.  But  it  cannot  be  ju- 
dicious to  confine  the  true  time  to  certain  days  or  weeks. 

The  experience  of  persons  in  other  countries  may  mislead 
us,  it  is  therefore  greatly  to  be  wished,  that  a  set  of  the  most 
accurate  experiments  were  made  by  some  judicious  persons  in 
this  country,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  best  time  for  autumnai 
sewing 


CHEMICAL  TERMS  EXPLAINEIT. 

Gas.  All  the  airs,  or  vapour  separated  from  bcwlies  by 
means  of  heat  or  any  chemical  process,  if  they  differ  in  theii 
properti^  from  the  air  of  the  atmosphere,  are  called  gasses. 

Carbonate  of  Lime.  This  substance,  under  the  name  of 
marble,  chalk,  limestone,  «&c.  exists  in  great  abundance  various- 
ly mixed  with  other  bodies.  It  is  often  found  chrystilized,  and- 
perfectly  transparent.  It  has  scarcely  any  taste.  It  i^  insolu- 
ble in  pure  water.  See  Bergman,  1st.  26^  for  further  exjilanas- 
tion. 

Calcarious.  A  term  used  to  describe  chalk,  marble,  and  al 
other  combinations  of  lime  with  carbonic  acid. 

Carbonic  Acid.     A  combination  of  carbon  and  oxygen. 

Carbon,    Thebasis  of  charcoal. 

Oxygen.  A  simple  substance,  composing  the  greatest  part 
<yf  water,  and  part  of  atmospheric  air. 

Argillaceous.  A  term  descriptive^of  those  earths  which  con- 
tain aktmine,  or  clay. 


ZKDEZi 


Agricultaralits  conapo&e  four  classes  -  -  -      13 

Agriculture  not  made  the  sole  object  of  pursuit    -  -  13 

Unless  it  is,  will  never  arrive  to  its  most  perfect  state  -      19 

The  rapid  extension  of  our  settlements  totbe  -^vest  and  south 
has  not  increased  the  aggreg;atc  of  wisdom  and  happiness 
amoo»  the  Asaerican  people    -  -  -  -  13 

The  erils  of  a  crowded  population  have  never  yet  been  aver- 
ted in  any  country  to  the  extent  which  the  science  and 
the  practice  of  agriculture  would  admit     -  -  -       16 

Whether  they  may,  remains  to  be  decided  by  the  American 

people  .-..-_  15 

If  we  would  perpetuate  the  duration  of  our  civil  privileges, 
we  should  consider  agricultural  pursuits  the  most  honorable 
and  fashionable  among  the  sciences  -  -       19 

The  principles  of  agriculture  are  uniform  and  universal  in 
Iheir  operations,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the  farmer  to  vary 
the  application  of  them  according  to  the  nature  and  con- 
dition of  the  soil  he  cnliivates  -  -  -  20 
The  Greeks  supposed  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  science 
of  agriculture  should  embrace  the  experience  and  the  phi- 
losophy of  the  whole  age  in  which  they  lived         -             -       23 
Several  of  their  celebrated   philosophers  left  useful  instruc- 
tions on  the  subject  of  agriculture         -             -             •  23 
The  occupation  of  agriculture  will  never  be  elevated  to  that 
dignity  which  it  merits,  so  long  as  it  is  considered  a  mere 
menial  exercise,  unworthy  the  efforts  of  intellectual  capa- 
city           .-.-..            .p      23 
Ashes — their  efficacy  as  a  manure             .-             ,-            •  39 
Asparagus — remarks  on  its  use          -             «            -.            -    248 

B 

Buckwheat  does  not  require  a  very  fertile  soil  -  '  109 

May  be  raised  in  succession  on  tbe  same  ground       *  -     109 

Fropei  time  for  sowing    ,.-.•=«  109 


*^^  l^DEX, 


Buckwheat  and  spths  rye,  may  be  sown  and  raised  to^"^^^' 

gether        --.,,_  . 

Remarks  on  its  culture  and  value  .  .     "  inQ-nn 

Bees— where  the  hive  should  be  placed        -  -  \ir 

Method  of  managing  bees  -  .  \iy 

Other  methods  described       -  .  -       "     -  -     177 

Directions  for  feeding  bees  -  .  .     *  ,     '     j«« 

To  preserve  bees  from  the  worm,  or  butterfly  "  -  '  -  178 
Method  to  save  them  from  being  killed  with  the  frostor  cold  178 
eogmeadows— method  recommended  for  draining    -  -    £03 

What  crops  may  be  successfully  raised  on  them  -  ^03 

cean,  garden,  mode  of  cultivation     -  ^  .  944 

BEES-.dysentarvadi--i„;  .  ,  .  .    I^J 

Cause  and  remedy    -        -  -  -  .  .  253 

The  various  enemies  of  bees  described  -  -  254-5 

The  profits  of  bees,  a  calculation  on         .  -  -         2^7 


Clay— its  use  and  properties  particularly  explained         -  28 
Its  capacity  for  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture  no  antidote 
against  drought,   when   existing  by  itself,  unmixed  with 

sand  or  other  substances    -             -             -             .             -  *>0 
Clay,  most  efficacious  in  promoting  vegetation  when  thor- 
oughly pulverized  and  mixed  with  sand  and  vegetable  or 

other  manures  -            -             -             .             __  go 

Carbon— its  nature  and  properties  explained            -            -  36 

Cattle — a  general  term  for  domestic  animald        -            .  53 

Corn — remarks  on  the  varieties  of    -             .             ,             -  75 

A  change  of  seed  necessary  to  secure  the  best  crop          -  75 

Remarks  on  the  changes  of  seed  corn             -    '         .             -  75 

Remarks  on  the  proper  time  for  planting  corn      -             -  75 

Corn,  said  not  to  be  an  exhausting  crop        -             -             -  76 

Remarks  on  the  particular  value  of  corn               .             ,  76 

Remarks  on  the  soil  proper  for  corn               -             -             -  77 
Remarks  on  the  best  method  of  planting  cora  to  secure  the 

largest  crop      -             -             .             ,             ,             _  .y^ 

The  drill  recommended  in  planting  corn       -             -             -  78 

Cider— remarks  on  preparing  the  fruit  for  making  cider  1 19 
Casks,  open  headed  said  to  be  the  best  for  the  first  ferment- 
ation of  cider          -             -             -             _             .             -119 

Remarks  on  the  fermentation  of  cider       -             -             .  Hj) 

How  to  prevent  the  fermentation  of  cider    -             -             -  120 

A  method  to  refine  cider               -             .             _             .  jgQ 

A  method  to  clarifv  cidec      -           ,            ,            ,            ^  12.0 


Page, 
A  method  to  prevent  cider  from  becoming  pricked,  or  cure  it 

when  it  is  so     -  -  -  -  -  -  120 

Au  opinion  that   cider  should  be  boiled  when  it  comes  from 

the  pres?,  if  CA'er                  •              •              .             •              *  120 
Reasons   why    mnre    attention   should   be  given  to  the  im- 
provement of  cider        .              .              .              •              •  \2\ 
Remarks  on   the    qualities  of  the  Virginia   crab  apple  for 

making  the  best  cider         .  .  .  •  •  121 

To  make  good  cider  great  attention  to  the  fermentation  m- 

dispenstble  .....  123 

Carts — for  one  horse  recommended  •  •  *  133 

Cattle  Neat — Our  neat  cattle  possess   all  tb«   valuable 
properties  which   distinguish  the  various  breeds  in  Great 

Britain  ...••.  146 

What  is  to  be  regarded  in  the  selection  and  improvement  of 

our  breeds  of  cattle  .....  J47 

Various  breeds  of  cattle  in  Great  Britain  described  •  147 

The  wild  race  of  Great  Britain  •  •  •  •  147 

The    Devonshire — the    Dutch — the    Lancashire — and    th*e 

Highland  or  Sheylffis  ....  147 

The  Polled — the  Aldemey  or  French*— and  the  Welch  '  14S 

Objections  to  importing  bulls  and  cows  from  Great  Britain 

to  improve  our  breed  ....  ;i4g 

How  we  may  improve  our  breed  of  cattle        •  •  148-149 

Cow — a  description  of  a  perfect  one         '  •  »  149 

Signsof  agood  ox      •  •  •  •  •  •  149 

Calves — rules  to  be  observed  in  raising  •  •  149 

Mismanagement  in  selections  for  raising        •  ♦  •  149 

Heifers— time  they  arrive  at  the  age  of  puberty  •  149 

Crossing — rules  to  be  observed  in  improving  the  breed  by 

crossing  •  •  '  ♦  •  '150 

English  breed  of  neat  cattle,  to  what  their  superiority  is  prin- 
cipally owing  •  •  •  •  '150 

Mode  of  keeping  their  neat  cattle  ♦  -  *  150 

An  opinion  respecting  the  cause  of  their  diseases  •  151 

Calves — a  particular  mode  of  raising  them  described  •  151 

Another  mode  described  •  •  •  •  152    ; 

What  pasture  best  for  calves^fter  weaned     •  •  •  152    ^ 

Neat  Cattle — ubat  keeping  necessary  to  increase  their  size  154 

Remarks  on  the  value  of  roofs  in  feeding  cattle         •  •  154 

Mr.  Curwen's   remarks  on   the  value  of  turnips  as  food   for  "^ 

neat  cattle        •  •  •  •  •  •  155    - 

Diseases  of  neat  cattle  •  '  •  •  •  I55 

Hoof  ail — horn  distemper — soil  sickness  •  •  155 />« 

Gripesorcholic  in  neat  cattle  •  •  •  •  156 

Scouring  symptoms  in  neat  cattle  •  •  '  156 


'^m 


IMBEX 


Hoven,  a  disease  ia  neat  cattle 

Stag:gers 

Overflowing  of  the  gall 

Panlasie 

Inflamation  of  the  liver 

Inflamation  of  the  lungs 

The  lock  jaw 

Garget 

Puerperal 

Canker  worms — Caterpillars 

Canada  thistle,  remarks  on 

Chesnut  tree — the  effect  of  its  shade  on  vegetation 

Compost  MANURii — remarks  on 

Method  to  prcv.de  compost  recommended 

Various  ingredients  valuable  for  compost  manure 

Cale — its  use  aad  cultivation 

Cabbage — remarks  on  (he  cuUivatiori  of 

Method  of  preserving  them 

Different  varieties  of,  and  relative  value  of  each 

Cucumbers — method  of  cultivating  them 


Page. 

'     156 

157 

•  157 
157 

•  158 
158 

'     15» 
159 

•  160 
1*79 

•  222 
130 

•  42 
42-43 

•  42 
247 

•  247 
248 

•  248 
249 


Diseases  of  neat  cattle  .....     I55, 

Dairy — in  managing  a  dairy  successfully    attention  to  the 

quality  of  the  milk  necessary  •  •  •  19^ 

The  last  drawn  milk,  or  slrippings,  the  most  valuable  for  dairy  192 
Remarks  on  the  quality  and  management  of  milk      •  '192 

Remarks  on  the  process  of  making  butter  •  •  193 

Mode  of  preserving  and  improving  butter,   recommended  by 

Doct.  Anderson  •  •  •  •  •     194 

Mode  of  managing   milk  so  as  to  increase  the  quantity  of 

cream  ......  195 

Feeding  cows  on  sainfoin  will  be  greatly  increased  •     195 

Process  of  making  cheese         •  •  •  •  295-6 

Simple  method  of  making  cheese  practiced  in  England  and 

America  ......     ij>7 

General  remarks  on  the  management  of  a  dairy  •  198 


Experiments — the  advantages  of               .            .            ^  233 

How  made  without  hazard          ....  233 

In  what  branches  of  husbandry  experiments  should  be  made  234 
Too  much  confidence  not  to  be  placed  in  single  experiments, 

the  reasons  why             .             •             •             •             •  234 

Experiment?  should  be  recorded        .             .             »             .  2S4 
A  successful  experiment  in  raising  wheat  and  potatoes,  ac- 
count of            •             -,           •            •            '            •      222-3 


PifBEX, 


26^, 


Page. 
Fallow— the  term  explained  •  *  '   ^         '56 

Objpctions  against  the  usual  practice  of  summer  fallowing  56-7 
Utility  of  substituting  rotation  of  crops  for  summer  fallow  57 

"What  crops  should  be  cultivated  as  a  substitute  for  summer 

fallow  ^  •  •  '  '  \,'  ^'^ 

When  substitutfn^  rotation  of  crops  for  summer  fallow  may 

bo  dispensed  with  or  omitted  *  '  *  •       50 

Flax — remarks  on  the  objections  to  this  crop       •  •  80 

Diversity  of  opinion  regpecting  the    exhausting  n?ture    of  a 

flax  crop  ....••       81 

Preparation  of  the  soil  for  a  flax  crop       •  *  '         oU-1 

Causes  of  the  fineness  of  the  Irish  fiax  •  *       ,      '       ^^ 

Different  causes  that  aifect  the  quality  of  flax  considered  81 

Different  modes  of  rotting  flax  •  *  *  '  ^^ol 

Salt,  said  to  be  a  valuable  manure  tor  flax  •  '  82 

How  seed  for  a  flax  crop  should  be  prepared  •  *       82 

Proper  time  for  pulling  flax  •  '        •    \    -,/       t.cPi 

Fruit  trees— remarks  on  plantmgand  pruning  fruit  trees  112-^ 
What  culture  of  land  best  promotes  the  growth  of  fruit  trees  113 
Farther  remarks  on  pruning  fruit  trees  •  •  *  o^}£. 

Diseases  of  fruit  trees        .  .  •  •  •      116-17 

Degeneracy  of  our  apple  tree?  •  *  '  ill 

Fences — remarks  on  hedges  for  fence     •  •  •  126 

Method  for  making  hedges  for  fence  of  the  white  mulberry, 
recommended         •  '  '  *     ,  r    *  l  ' 

The  thorn,  the  apple,  and  the  willow  roost  used  for  the  pur- 
poses of  hedges  .  .  .  •  •  IJ7 
Method  to  raise  the  thorn  from  the  seed  -  •  '127 
Method  to  make  hedges  for  fence  from  apple  seeds  •  128 
Objections  to  hedges  for  fence  considered  •  •  '128 
Ditches  for  fence  •  •  •  •  *  128 
Directions  for  making  the  hedge  of  the  willow  •  •  129 
Mr.  Silliman's  remarks  on  hedge  rows  •  •  •  129 
Reasovis  for  introducing  hedges  in  some  parts  of  our  country  130 
Floodinff  land — trees  and  useless  plants  killed  by  flooding 

land •        -     '     204 

General  remarks  on  the  advantages  of  flooding  land       •  205 

Farmers — the  bad  ecoLomy  of  many,  and  the  consequences     265 
The  wisdom  and  success  of  the  common  farmer  will  eventu- 
ally characterize  our  republic,  and  tend  to  its  perpetuity       2G5 
Farmers  not  enough  inclined  to  form  the  habits  of  their  sons 

to  agricultural  pursuits     •  •  •  •  •       267. 

Farms  in  New  England  generally  too  large  for  the  benefit  of 
the  proprietors  •  •  •  °  •  256 

>i       A 


2^  INDEX. 

a 

Gypsum— its  constituent  properties  explained  •  •       40. 

Its  different  efficacy  on  different  soils        '  •  •  40 

The  quantities  wiiich  have  been  thought  best  to  be  u«»ed      •       40 
Grass— the  importance  of  breaking  up  old  grass  to  improve 
_thesc,l  ...  .  .  .  ^.    4^_3_ 

Remarks  on  •  •  •  .  .  .  .  rQ_^ 

Grasses  artificial — what  we  are  to  understand  by  them  •  96 

improvement  of  the  soil  by  cultivating  artificial  grasses 
Other  advantagesresuUing  from  the  culture  of  artificial  ffras- 


06 


Comparative  value  of  artificial  grasses  and  those  which  grow 
without  cultivation  •  .  .  .  .  95.7 

Lucern  an  artificial  grass  described  •  •  .         97-8 

Sanfoin  and  Burnet  •  •  .  .  .  ^9-100 

Cichory  or  wild  Scurvy    •  •  .  .  .  jqq 

Spuny,  the  bush  vetch,  and  tares      •     i      .  .  -100 

The  broad  leafed  vetch,  or  everlasting  tare 

The  tufted  velch,  or  tare      •  .  .  , 

The  strange  vetch  '  '  •  '  -  ^^Jl 

Clovers — varieties  and  culture  of     •  •  .  101-2-3 

Mr.  Young's  opinion  respecting  the  proper  quantity  of  differ 

^  ent  grass  seeds  to  be  sown  on  an  acre 

Natural  meadow  land  •  •  .  . 

Grasses  called  natural,  because  they  will  grow  lon'^er  with 
out  cultivation — herds  grass     •  •  .     **       . 

Meadow  fox  tail  and  meadow  fescue 

Darnel,  or  ray  grass         •  •  .  .  . 

Crested  dogs  tail       •  •  -  .  . 

Meadow  grass,  and  vernal  or  spring  grass 

Sheep's  fescue  and  hard  fescue 

Annual  meadow  grass       •  •  .  .  . 

Rough  stalked  meadow  grass 

Fowl  meadow  grass  •  •  .  ,  . 

Flat  stalked  red  meadow  grass,  and  creeping  beni  grass 

Silver  hair  grass,  and  tall  oat  grass 

Yellow  oat  grass,  rib  grass,  and  cock's  foot    • 

Blue  dog's  tail  grass  •  •  .  . 

Aquatic  plants  or  grasses — flote  fox  tail 

"Water  hair  grass,  or  red  meadow  grass     • 

Garget — disease  in  cows  «... 

Grubs  ...... 

Garden  flea      •►•♦<. 

Grasshoppers  '  •  •  • 

Grub  and  wire  worm  •  •  •  •  .  •     i»^ 

Gardens— general  remarks  oa  the  advantages  of  •  24I 


101 
101 
101 


102-3 
103-4 

104 
105 
105 
106 
106 
106 
106 
106 
106 
107 
107 
107 
108 
108 
10« 
159 
180 
182 
182 
182 


Divisions  and  plan  of  a  g-arden            ....  ^j 
Plants  usually  cultivated  in  gardens,  as  beets,  carrots,  pars- 
nips, &c. — observations  on  the  cultivation  of  •   /         •  242 
A  table  cannot  be  well  furnished  without  attention  to  ^^-ar- 

dening           •             •             •            .             •             •       "     •  251 

O  bscrvatiens  of  European  travellers  relating  to  this  subject  250 

Gardens  useful  for  trying  various  experiments      •             •  252 

The  utility,  convenience,  and  economy  of  gardening,  claim 

thefarmer^s  attention  to  this  branch  of  husbandry              •  252 

Hemp — remarks  on  the  advantages  of  cuUivalino*  •  83 

The  soil  proper  for  a  hemp  crop  •  •       "  .  '83 

What  quantity  of  seed  nequisite  to  the  acre  •  •  84 

The  seed  should  be  of  the  next  preceding  ye&r  .  •       84 

How  the  seed  should  be  prepared  •  *  *  84 

What  time  the  seed  should  be  sown     •  •  •  -84 

Harvesting  hemp,  and  getting  off  the  seed  •  •  84 

Different  modes  of  rotting  hemp  ...  g 

Wheat  may  be  raised  successfully  after  heMp  •  .  35 
The  policy  of  raising  our  own  hemp  /or  commercial  and  na- 
val pni  poses  •  •  .  .  .  -  &r 
Hops— soil  proper  for  hops  •  •  .  '•  93 
The  particular  mode  of  planting  and  cultivating  hops  04 
1  roper  time  for  harvesting  hops  •  •  •  -  95 
Method  of  preparing  and  securing  then>  for  market  ■•  .  95 
i-conomy  of  raising  hops  *  *  *  •  •  oc 
Horses — improving  the  br^ed  of  •  •  .  .  jgg 
To  improve  the  breed  of  horses,  it  is  essential  to  attend  to 

the  properties  of  the  mare  as  well  as  to  those  of  the  hor«e  l'?'; 

Management  of  bleeding  mares   •               •              •             ."  jgg 

A  particular  mode  of  weaning  colts  recommended       •             .  log 
A  reason  assigned  for  the  superiority  of  the  English  breed  of 

horses     •  •  .  .  .  . 

iM^rksofa  good  horse              •             •             •             •       '     •  1S7 

Breaking  a  horse  to  the  saddle  and  harness          »             .  {oZ 

Diseases  of  HORSES-heaves,  film  over  the  eyes,  cholic     •  133 

Bot  worms,  false  quarter               .              .              .              .  i^Q 

Farcy,  foundering  of  horses  •              •              .              ,              .  j^^ 

Gigs,  glanders,  hide  bound,  lampas,  poll  evH       •             •  141 

Tumors,  scratches    •              .             .             .             .  j^^ 

Spavin,  stago^ers \^^ 

Sprain,  wheezing,  wind-gail              •             •             .             .  tji 
Yellows       ...              .... 

HEiFERg-what  time  they  arrire  to  the  age  of  puberty  *    .    j^ 


292  iNDBX.  ^^^ 

Hat— the  loss  it  sustains  of  its  nutritjve  aliments  by  drying:, 

shown  by  experiment                *.'.*.'.  155 

Hoof  ail         •             •             '             *.-.*.  355 
Horn  distemper  •             •             •             *             * 

Hoven,  a  disease  in  neat  cattle         •              '             '  i^o 

Hoven,or  swollen,  disease  in  sheep         •             '             *  9^7 

Harrows,  the  best,  how  constructed                 •             *  ^t 

How  and  when  used  aflvanta-eously           •             *             *  ono 

The  double  harrow  described    -             '             '             '  Z?l 

M'henprogtable  to  barroTV  grassland          •             '             .  -tuo 

Harrows  should  be   coustructed  so  as  to  prevent  harrowing  ^^ 

too  deep  .*•*•' 

Z 

Iron— the  add  and  oxld  of  iron  explained    -             '         ,.  T  ^^ 
The  oxid  of  Iron  gives  to  saNd  and  clay  the  brown  and  redish 

color,  as  Well  as  the  intermediate  shades        -             "  ?? 

Improvement  of  lands  by  ploughing  and  harrowing               -  i>i 
How  the  process  of  ploughing  and  harrowing  should  be  «^e-^^_^^ 

cuted  to  render  it  efficacious  -  "1    1       J-  i 

Mr.  Quell's^pinion  respecting  the  efficacy  of  ploughing  and  ^^ 

harrowing  in  improving  land  -  -         ^T„..    ' 

Two   experiments  in  attestation  of  the  utility  ^^ P^°"S^'°5^^_52 

and  harrowing  cited    -             -             '             *             *  179 
Insects,  Canker  worms,  catterpillars              -            -            - 

Grubs,  to  or  spindle  worms,  blackworms            -            -  ^^ 

Red  worms,  timber  worms    -            "            "             *            "  184 

Maggots,  yellow  striped  bug,  turmp  fly  -             -            "  iS 

Garden  flea,  lice,  weave],  grasshoppers  ^      *      .      '      .  183 

Circulio  -             -             *    ,     .   "             '                                ._  iqo 

z. 

Lime-its  use  and  properties  as  constituents  of  the  soil  ex-       ^^ 

Jam-not  an  original  e;rth,  its'constitJents  explained  -      25 

Lime— its  use  and  properties  explained  -            -            '  .       31 

Loam— its  constituent  properties  explained  .            -       ^  ^^ 

Lime,  remarks  on  as  a  manure    -            -            '            '  ^g^ 

^me,  its  effects  on  strong  land,  in  the  cultu're  of  wheat  240 


XH 


Magnusia;  its  nse  and  properties  «*P\^.'"^^.^^     '  -^  -     ' 
Opinions  respecting  the  use  and  properties  of  magnesia  as  a 
manure  explained 


26 
30-31 


Page. 
Mould — its  constituents  and  properties  explained    .  -      31 

Manures — The   experiments  ofMr.   Hassenfratz  respecting 
the    effects  of  manures  in  their  different  conditioiis 
whether  whole  or  decomposed  -  -  -  36 

Carbon — its  nature  and  operations  as  a  manure  explained    -      36 
Coarse  manure  as  straw,  &c. — remarks  on  its  effects  and  ap- 
plication      .-----  3T 

The  various  ways  in  which  such  manure  is  rendered  less  ef. 
ficacious    -  -  -  -  -  -  *      2'' 

Different  earths  will  manure  each  other  -  -  38 

In  what    ways  sand    and  ctay    should  be  applied  when 
intended  to  be  used  as  manures    -  -  -  -      38 

The  fcflBcacy  of  various  substances,  useful    as  manures    -  38 

Marl  from  bog  swamps  a  good  manure  on  upland  soils  •      38 

The  different  kinds  of  marl  described       -  -  -  38 

To  what  soils  and  for  what  crops  marl  may  be  eflScaciously 

applied     ---.---      3d 
Ashes — remarks  as  a  manure     -  -  -  -  39^ 

Gypsum — remarks  as  a  manure        -  -  -  -      40 

Ad  opinion  respecting  the  different  eflBcacy  of  the   dung  of 

different  domestic  animals         ...  -  41 

Horse  dung  injured  by  laying  long  in  a  heap  -  -       41 

The  opinion  which  has  heretofore  prevailed  that   wet  yards 
are  best  for  the  purposes  of  preparing  barn  manure  an  er- 
roneous one      ------  41 

Various  opinions  respecting  the  best  mode  of  applying  co&rse 
manure  to  the  soil  -  -  -  -  -      41 

Mr.  Davy's  opinion  repecting  the  proper  mode  of  applying  it, 

and  his  reasons  for  it  -  -  ^  .       41-42 

How  coarse  materials  should  be  disposed  of,  and  prepared 
for  manure  -  -----       42 

Variou ^substances  proper  for  compost  manure  described  43- 

Coarse  manure  should  not  be  long   exposed  to  drought,  and 
mo  s'ure  before  it  is  applied      -  -  -  -  43 

Remarks  on  the  diversity  of  opinion  and  practice  respecting 

the  application  of  compost  manure  -  -  -       44 

Remarks  on  the  economy,  and  the  means  of  providing  com- 
post manure    -  -  -  -  -  -  45 

Kemarks  on  the  ImjH'oper  manner  of  applying  compost  ma- 
nure -  -  -  -  -  45-46 

The  method  of  covering  coarse   manure  practiced  by  some 
farmers  -----  .  4g 

Remarks  en  the  importance  of  ploughmg  in  green  crops  as  a 
manure     -  -  -  -  -  -  -47 

A  mode  suggested,  by  which  green  crops  may  be  most  effec- 

»    tually  covered  by  ploughing    ,  -  =^  -  47 


Mulberry  tree — ^^the  effect  of  its  shade  on  vegetation          -  230 
Mellons — different  varieties  and  cultivation  of  -            •  244 
Metheglin,  manufacture  of                  •            .             .            ,  g^g 
Mead,  different  kinds  described                 •            •             •  260 
Maple  sugar,  process  of  manufacturing          •            •            •  270 
Mode  of  reducing  the  syrup  to  sugar  so  as  to  make  it  Tery 
•white  and  beautifully  grained               •             •            ,  27g 
O 
Oats — too  much  inattention  to  the  culture  of  this  crop  gener- 
ally      - 7S 

The  culture  of  oat«  should  be  encouraged           *            -  78 

Remarks  on  the  value  of  oats  for  horses        -             -             -  78 

Remarks  on  the  different  varieties  of  oats              -             -  79 

Remarks  on  the  proper  quantity  of  seed  oats  on  an  acre        -  79 

Remarks  on  the  soil  proper  for  oats          -            -            -  80 
Ao  opinion  that  oats   succeed  "well  after  a  crop  of  spring 

wheat  or  rye              -            -            -            .            -  CO 

Oats  may  be  soivn  for  the  purposees  of  hay        -            •►  80 

Ox — signsof  a  good  one         -            ^             *             .             -  149 

Overflowing  of  the  gall  -            *            -            »            *  157 

Ox — disease  in  the  foot  of     -             -             -             *             -  159 

Oak  black — <he  effects  of  its  shade  on  vegetation             -  130 

Onions — cultivation  of         •             _            -            4.            .  245 


Plant— the  supposed  maftner  in  which  tiourishment  is  com- 
municated to  the  plant            -            -            -            -  35 

The  agency  of  water  in  the  growth  6f  plants           -            -  36 
Plants  derive  some  part  uf  their  nourishment  from  the  at- 
mosphere         ------  36 

The   efficacy  of  the  atmosphere  on  plants  in  proportion  to 

that  of  the' soil      -             -----            -  35 

The  science  of  the  manner  in  which  nourishment  is  commu- 
nicated to  the  plant,  important  to  make  a  proper  applica- 
tion of  manure    ------  36 

^Ploughing  and  harrowing — how  it  should  be  executed  to  im- 
prove the  soil  and  prepare  it  for  a  crop       -  -  54-55 
In  ploughing,  so  as  best  to  promote  vegetation,  there  cannot 

be  too  perfect  pulverizaltion  of  the  soil           -             -  56 

Potato — remarks  on  methods  to  improve  the  crop  of            -  90 

How  to  obtain  new  varieties  of  -             -             -             -  90 

Diversity  of  opinion  respecting  the  best  seed  potatoe           -  90 

Irish  method  of  preparing  seed  potatoes  -            -            -  91 
Remarks  on  the  different  methods  of  cultivating  potatoei       91-92 

Other  modes  of  acquiring  new  varieties  of  potatoes          -  92 
Remarks  on  the  (different  varieties  of  potatoes             -             92-93 

JPatatoes  the  best  preparatory  crop  for  wheat      -            -  93 


INDS*. 


^K^S 


Page. 

Remarks  on  djg;ging  potatoes           -             •             "               -  93 

Pea — Remarks  on  the  value  and  cultivation  of  peas         -  110 

Remarks  on  the  pea  bug       -             -             -             -             -  110 

What  time  peas  should  be  sown               -             -             *  111 
Peas  should  be  ploughed  in               -             -             -             -111 

Mr.  Batram's  remarks  on  the  pea  bug      -             -             -  111 

Poison  of  animals — remedy  -----  159 

?-5rperal  fever — disease  in  cows               -             -             -  160 

Purging — disease -in  sheep    -----  168 

P-ine  plain  land — remarks  on  the  nature  and  condition  of  186-187 

Fertilizing  by  clay  a  vegetable  manure         -             -             -  187 

Fertilizing  by  Gypsum     -             -             -             -             -  188 

Fertilizing  by  turning  in  green  crops              -             -             -  188 

Fertilizing  by  repeated  ploughing            .             -             _  188 

Fertilizing  by  paring  and  burning      -             -             .             -  188 

A  rotation  of  crops  in  pine  plain  land  recommended         -  191 

Pine  plain  land         -             -             -             -             -             -  191 

Rsmarks  on  the  value  ef  the  pine  plain  lands      -             *  191 
Poultry — gfeneral  remarks  on   the  advantages   of  keeping 

poultry      ---..---  199 
A  singular  experiment  respecting  the  fattening  of  poultry  200 
The  value  of  charcoal  in  feeding  poultry  explained             -  ^00 
Remarks  on  the  prolific  nature  of  the  dunghill  fowl         -  201 
Remarks  on  the  ofuinea fowl  and  turkey        .             _             .  201 
Remarks  on  the  management  of  geese    -             -             -  202 
On  the  varieties  of  tame  ducks          .             -             -             -  202 
Plough — certain    important   principles   relating   to  the  con- 
struction of  the  plou^g'h,  to  be  attended  te         -             -  209 
Plough  invented  by  Thomas  Jefferson  described       -             -  209 
Rules  for  Cfn?tructing  a'plough  by  a  Pennsylvania  farmer  211 
Ploughing — general  remarks  on  the  process  of  ploughing     -  212 
General  remail  s  on  the  purposes  and  mode  of  ploughing  212 
©n  deep  ploughing,  and  turning  up  red   soil             -             -  212 
Crench  ploughing.,  when  proper             -             -             -  213 
When  cos   ploughing  ah^uld  be  omitted       -             -             -  213 
Remarks  on  ploughing  for  winter  wheat               -              -  213 
How  low  flat  land  should  be  ploughed          .             ^             -  214 
Ploughing   in  grain  instead  cf  harrowing  recommended  id 

some  instances            \.             -             -             »             -  214 

On  ploughing  clay  soils        ^             -             .             -             -  214 

Remarks  on  ploughing  in  ridges  -             -             -             -  215 

On. ploughing  indian  corn  lands   immediately  after  the  corn 

is  off          -            -           ^-            .            -            .            -  215 
General  maxims  respecting  the  proper  depth  of  ploughing  215-216 

Circumstances  which  render  deep  ploughing  inexpedient     -  217 

Remarks  on  the  particular  advantages  of  deep  ploughing  217 


Page. 
Plaster  of  Fans — A  reason  tvhy  U  is  sometimes  not  efficacious, 

by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy  -  -  ,  -  -  22*7 
Remarks    on  different  modes    of  apply ingf  it,  by  Colonel 

Taylor      -            -          -         -           '.            -            -  227 

Its  value  in  mixioj^  with  seed  wheat  ^  .  .  228 
Plaster  of  Paris,  a  valuable  ally,  but  not  a  substitute  for 

manure  .-----  228 
In  the  use  of  the  plaster,  the  nature  of  the  soil  as  weH  as  the 

plants  to  be  considered  -  -  *  -  -  228 
flow  it  should  be  applied  when  intended  to  increase  a  Crop 

of  winter  grain              .           -            -            -            -  229 

Its  u&e  and  proper  applicafion  not  sufficiently  understood     •'  22^' 

Poplars — the  effect  o  its  shade  on  vegetation  -            -  239 

Poplar  lombardy,  its  use  and  properties        -            •            •  12& 

Pkpper  red — cultivation  and  preservation  of  -            -  250 

P£A«  Garden— varieties  and  cultiTation  of          -            -  243 


75 


Rte — no  essential  difference   between  winter  and  sfpring 

rye      -------  to 

Remarks  on  the  advantages  of  the   rye   crop            -            -  73 

Remarks  on  the  advantages  of  feeding  rye  in  some  conditions  73 

Remarks  on  the  proper  quantity  of  seed  for  rye       -            *  "^S 

The  proper  time  for  harvesting  rye           -            -            -  7Sf 

Rye—sometimef^sown  for  the  purpose  of  pasture  and  hay  73 
Rye  stubble  should  be  ploughed  under  to  destroy  weeds  and 

improve  the  soil            -            -            -            -            »  74 

Remarks  on  rye  flour  for  bread         -             -            -            -  74 

Roots— their  value  in  feeding^  to  neat-cattle      -            -  154 

Red  WORM8            -            -            -            -            -            -  180 

HoRSE-RAKE — description  of  it  -            -            -            -  206- 

Advantages  of  a  horse  rake  and  bow  used    .-            -            -  206 


Diseases  of  swine            ^            .            -            -            *  175 

Fever  or  raising  of  the  lites               -            -             -             -  175 

Straw — winter  waste  of  straw  by  farmers          -            -  224 

Method  of  saving  straw  recommended  -  -  -  224 
Straw  as  a  constituent  of  compost  manure  claims  a  different 

consideration  from  otb€r  constituents  -            -            -  225 

The  best  mode  of  converting  it  into  manure             -            -  226 

Method  of  feeding  straw  recommended    -            -            -  226 

Shades— of  some  particular  trees,  their  tfffeets  on  vegetation  230 
Soil  composed  of  several  simple  substances,  viz.  sand  clay, 

lime  magnesia  ••  -  -  "  .  '  .  ^ 
Those  four  simple  substances  do  not  constitute  a  fertile  «oil 

in  whateteT  proportions  they  may  be  mixed         -           -  26 


INDEX.  ^^ 

Page. 
26 


33 
34 


•proved  bv  Ibe  experiments  of  Giobert  and  Lampodfns    - 

The  consLuent  substances  of  a  fertile  so.l^  discovered  from      ^^ 

Sand  and'clay  the'priuclpal  constituent  sample  substances  ^^ 

Th^  n't^le  td'properti'es  of  th;   differ;nt constituent  sub-  ^^ 

stances  of  soils  eiplamed  -  "  . 

The  obstacles  to  improvement  may  be  found  in  ^the  subsoil,  ^^ 

as  well  aa  the  surface  -  "  "*  »•«  9Q 

The  u^eand  properties  of  sand  in  promoliD-  vegetation         -  «9 

landTnd  day  when  thoroughly  niixed  become  -mportant  a-  ^^ 

Sofl-.l.'J'bSshToloVfrsSi^inthe  territory  of  a  country      ^^ 

long  cultivated,  explamed  '  .  .  31 

Soils,  advantages  of  analyzmg  them        *       .  .  23^32 

A  processxlescribed  to  analyze  the  soil 

Soils  apparently  good  sometimes  m  a  great  ^^^'^  ^ 

The  proper  proportions  of  the  simple  earths   to   ^onstitute  a 

fertile  soil,  to  be  determined  by  practice  f^"^  ob^rvat.on 
Seeds  will  not  germinate  at  a  ceitain  depth  below  the  sur- 

TheTooner  the^plant  make  its  'appearance  after  the  seed  is  ^ 
sown   the  more  vigorous  and  healthy  will  it    appear         '       ^ 

Mr  Davy^s  remarks^especting  the  necessity  of  atmospheric  ^ 
air  in  the  germination  of  seed   •  *  .47 

Soil,  improved  by  breaking  up  old  grass         •  * 

The  reason  why  br*.aking  up  oldgrassisnot  of  tea  practiced 

ThT'.^;ScVof"br;  up  ;idgras;  particularly  appli- 

Remal^ks^^Th  Jmtner  in*  .hich  the  process  of  breaking 

up  old  grass  ought  to  be  executed  to  render  it  efficacious 
The  opinion  that  the  farmer  can  keep  more  stock  by  letting 
his  old  -lasa  remain  in  pasture,  rather  than  convert  it  to 
tillage^^believed  to  be  erroneous  *      .^     *  *  ?i 

The  objections  to  breaking  up  old  grass  considered  •  *       oi 

Soiling— what  is  understood  by  ii,  and  its  object  '  »» 

The   probable  origin  of  soiling  suggested       •  *  *       59 

Remarks  on  the  advantages  of  soiling      •  •  * 

Those  who  cultivate   small  tracts  of  land  most  benefited  by      ^^ 

RoLLEl-The  use  of  the  plain  and  spiky  roller  explained        ^61 
Soil  sickness  in  neat  cattle         •  *  '  *     ^ 

Scouring  symptoms  in  neat-cattle  ^  '  *  ^,^ 

Staggers  in 4ieat  cattle     •  '  '  * 


4& 

48 

49 

50 


^^  JXD£X.. 


SHEEP-,Or;|IiiaI  causes  of  differences  among  sheep  ^fai 

Different  soils  suited  to  the  different    breeds  of  sheeo  •     iRi 

oTsheer*^'  expediency  of  keeping  the   different  kinds 

33ifferent  kinds  ofsheep  in  Great  Britain  described   •       *      .     JfiJ 
Merin©  sheep—remarks  on  the  introduction  of  •  • 

Our  common  sheep  improved  by  mixing  with 
Mr  Livingston's  remarks  on  improving  the   breed  of  sheeD 
by  crossing        •  •  .  .  .  "^^^^ 

Rule  tor  selecting  ewes 
On  shearing  merino  sheep  '     . 

Management  of  sheep  after  shearing       •  .     * 

Remarks  on  managing  the  wool-       • 

An  European  methodof  managing  merinos  before  cardin* 

Dry  food  for  sheep  in  winter,  its  effect  •  .      " 

Succulent  food  for  sheep  recommended    • 

superiority  of  sheep  in  Great  Britain  and  to  what  owing 
Uiseases  of#heep  »  .  .  .  ''. 

Bot — scab     •«.«,. 

Ticks— staggers  •  .  .  .      *       . 

Hoven  or  swollen— purging—the  fly  or  Maggot 

Worms  m  the  head  of  sheep  •  .  , 

SwiPfE— Remarks  on  the  economy  of  keepino- 

The  Chinese  breed,  described  and  recommended 

Spanish  breed  described  and   recommended 

Rules  for  improving  the  breed  of  swine    • 

Remarks  on  sows  eating  their  offspring 

Objections  to  raising  hogs  for  market  considered  • 

Remarks  on  feeding  swine    •  •  .  ,  1»i 

Diseases  of  swine — Measles— Mange       •  .  . 

Murrian,  or  Leprosy,  garget,  inflamation  of  the  udder 

i^ry  caugh  •  .  .  .  .  ^ 

Sowing  circumstances  to  be  attended,  to  render  it  successful 

feeeds,  how  provided  and  preserved 

Miller's  rxperirneuts  respecting  seeds  for  sowing 

Proper  times  tor  committing  seeds  to  th€  earth 

1  be  forwardness  of  trees  in  unfolding  their  leaves  the  best 

criterion  for  the  sowing  season  •  .  ..  ^79 

Proper  depths  for  burying  seeds         •  »  »  ,     gfiO 

Few  seeds  will  come  up  if  buried  deeper  than  nine  inches         280 
feome  seeds  will  not  rise  if  buried  more  than  two  inches  280 

^ature  and  state  of  the  soil  to  determine  depth  of  sowing-  280 

I  ull  3  method  to  determine  the  depth  in  a  doubtful  case  281 

Advantages  of  sowing  with  a  drill  •  .  •  28X 

Relative  quantity  of  seed  to  be  sown  on  rich  and  poor  land       282 
Reason  proper  for  sowing  winter  grain  •  *  '282 


162 
163 

163 
163 
163 
164 
164 
164 
165 
165 
165 
165 
166 
167 
168 
168 
169 
170 
170 
170 
171 
171 
-172 
174 
165 
175 
277 
278 
278 
279 


HfCEX.  299 

T  Page. 

Teams,  a  mode  to  effect  deep  ploughing  with  less  strengtTi 

of  tram   suorge^ted             •              •              .              *             '  55 
TuRifiPS,  1  he    raiiiug  of  turnips  a  great  object  in  the  hus- 
baodry  of  Great  Britain              •             •            •             •  86 

Remarks  on  the  varieties  of  turnips  •  •  '86 

Remarks  on  the  methods  of  raising  turnips  •  •       86-87 

Objections  to  the  raising  of  turnips  considered            •             •  87 
A  method  of  harvesting  a  large  crop  described   •             -       87-88 

Turnip  crops  prepare  the  ground  for  wheat  or   grass              .  88 
Antidote  to   the  ravages  of  the  turnip  fly,  little  black  flea 

that  infests  them              ♦             •             •             •             .  88 

The  quantity  of  seed  proper  for  an  acre          *                          *  89 

Remarks  on  sowing  the  turnip        •            •            •             *  89 
Teams — remarks   on  the   relative   value   of  horse   and  os 

teams          •             •             .             •  .          '              *             •  131 
Ox  teams   the  only  ones  used  for  the  plough  or  for  burden 

in  many  places             ^  •             •             -             •             *  132 
Mr.  Livingston's  remarks  respecting  catties  drawing  by   the 

horns           •             •             .             .             .             .             •  132 

A  mode  of  harnessing  cattle  substituted  for  bows  in  Europe, 

described          ...              ...  132 

Mr.   Livingiston's  remarks  on  the  utility   of  different  modes 

of  draft  for   cattle               ......  133 

Advantages  of  horse  cart  explained         •            •            •  133 

An  improvement  in  the  harness  suggested    •            *             •  134 

Ticks  in  sheep    ....••  168 

Timber  worms            .             .              .             .              .             •  180 

Threshing  machines,  advantages  of        •            -            •  262 

V 

Vegetables,  number   on  our  globe   which  have  been   dis- 
coved  ......  34 

W 

Wheat.     The  different  varieties  of  wheat  in  use  described       62 
General  divisions  of  wheat,  divided    into  two  classes,   the 

thick  chaffed  and  the  thin  chaffed  .  .  .62 

The  thick  chaffed  most  exposed  to  mildew,  and  gone  out  of 
Use  generally  .  ...  .  .       62 

The  general  divisions  of  wheat  in  the  United  States,  are  win- 
ter and  spring,  from  which  other  varieties  are  derived  62 
In  what  soils  wheat  will  flourish               ...  6^ 
Proper  time  for  sowing  whemt              .            -           .            ..62 
Quantity  of  seed  to.be  sown  per  a«re         .             •            .  63 


^  INDEX. 

Pag€,. 
Wheat  cannot  be  raised  successfully  without  proper  attention 

is  paid  to  preparing  the  seed         ....  63 

Antidote  against  frosts^  injuring  wheat  .  .  .63 

Manner  in  which  frost  injures  wheat         ...  63 

When  spring  wheat  should  be  sown  .  .  .63 

Eifect  produced  from  bringing  wheat  for  seed  from  the  north 

into  the  United  States  .  ...  63 

Difiercnt  methods  of  preparing  the  soil  for  a  crop  of  wheat  64-65 
A  summer  crop  should  precede  wheat,  instead  of  summer 

fallow  •••••*•«« 

Hessian  Fly,  a  remedy  described  for      .  •  •  67 

Smut,  how  prevented  in  wheat  .  •  •  .68 

Harvesting  smutty  wheat  *  *  *  *  En 

Mildew,  remarks  on  the  cause  of  it     .  .  •  *         ? 

Mildewed  wheat,  when  to  be  harvested  •  •  69 

Evidence  of  mildewed  wheat  ,  .  •  .69 

Troper  time  for  harvesting  wheat  .  •  '      „^^^ 

Diseases  of  wheat,  generally    .  .  •  •       .     ^^"^1 

WOODLA.NB.     Policy  of  France  in  the  economy  of  preserving     ^^^ 

wood  .  •  •  •  '       •      *       J  • ' 

An  opinion  that  the  economy  of  France  in  preserving  wood  is 

such,  that  their  supplies  will  never  diministi  ;  ,.       , "     ^^"^ 

Erroneous  management  of  the  American  people  relating  to    ^^^ 

their  woodland  .  «  »  •  ">  *     lo^ 

Artificial  forests  recommended  to  small  land  owners        ,  ~4 

The  locust,  and  Lombardy  poplar        .  •  .  '     „„  . ' 

Further  remarks  on  the  bad  economy  of  Amcncaa  farmers  in 

relation  to  woodland        .    /  .,.        ^    ^         \.  ^j    '  "     m? 

Unnecessary  waste  of  fuel  in  boilmg  water  noticea^ 

WEEDS,   the  injurious  effects  of  weeds     on  the  growth  of  ^^^ 

plants  described             '              *            *                    ^             .  oiq 

Weeds  may  be  divided  into  two  classes            *    „^  p^j-tence  ilQ 

Necessary  means  to  prevent  their  prevalence  and  existence  219 
Ofhpr  means  described             * 

Remarks  on  the  Canada  thistle  and  some  means  recommen-  ^^^ 

To'^pr^elenfwerdVVas   an  object  of  introducing  the  drill   ^^^ 

W Sxf  7successsful  method  of  cultivating  wheat  and  po-   ^^ 
tocB,  alternatively  ,  ..  •  « 


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